Romans: Analysis

1 Class schedule

Week	Date	8.30 am	9.30 am	10.30 am	11.30 am
1	July 26	Greek (1.1-17)	Introduction	Exegesis (1.1-17)	Exegesis (1.18-32)
2	Aug 2	Greek (1.18-32)	Four Pillars	Exegesis (2.1-16)	Exegesis (2.17-3.8)
3	Aug 9	Greek (2.1-16)	Exegesis (3.9-31)	Seminar 1: Author (Sally)	Exegesis (4.1-12)
4	Aug 16	Greek (2.17-3.8)	Exegesis (4.13-25)	Seminar 2: Occasion (Braden, Royce)	Exegesis (5.1-11)
5	Aug 23	Greek (3.9-31)	Exegesis (5.12-21)	Seminar 3: Audience (Graham)	Exegesis (6.1-14)
			Study week
6	Sep 6	Greek (4.1-12)	Exegesis (6.15-7.6)	Seminar 4: Thought world (John)	Exegesis (7.7-25)
7	Sep 13	Greek (4.13-25)	Exegesis (8.1-17)	Seminar 5: Mechanics (Kim, Ivan)	Exegesis (8.18-39)
8	Sep 20	Greek (5.1-21)	Exegesis (9.1-18)	Seminar 6: Transmission (Tim F)	Exegesis (9.19-33)
9	Sep 27	Greek (6.1-14)	Exegesis (10.1-21)	Seminar 7: Rhetoric (Douglas S)	Exegesis (11.1-12)
			Study week
10	Oct 11	Greek (6.15-7.6)	Exegesis (11.13-36)	Graduate seminar (TBA)	Exegesis (12.1-16)
11	Oct 18	Greek (7.7-25)	Exegesis (12.17-13.7)	Seminar 8: God’s righteousness (Noel)	Exegesis (13.8-14.12)
12	Oct 25	Greek (8.1-17)	Exegesis (14.13-15.13)	Seminar 9: Paul’s heartbreak (Ben)	Exegesis (15.14-33)
13	Nov 1	Greek (8.18-39)	Exegesis (16.1-16)	Seminar 10: Women (Owen)	Exegesis (16.17-27)

2 Introduction

This analysis divides Paul’s Letter to the Romans into 26 sections for a thirteen week course with two exegesis lectures per week. Section divisions usually follow those of the UBS Greek New Testament (B. Aland et al. 2014).

2.1 English text

The English text is taken from the WEB Bible, Open English Bible (OEB), and in some instances the NASB. The Greek New Testament served as a guide for section headings and paragraphing. Quotations marked in bold in the Greek New Testament are formatted as block quotations here.

2.2 Comments

The commentary expands on parts of the text. It borrows from Dr Richard K. Moore’s Paul’s Concept of Justification (Moore 2015) in many places. Instances of right- (Greek δικαιο-) words in the Bible text are rendered in bold. Dr Moore’s translations of these words are also given, marked with his initials (RKM). E.g.

divine righteousness] the way to a right relationship (RKM)

the righteous] the person who is in a right relationship (RKM)

2.3 Summary

The summary gives a brief outline of the section.

3 Analysis

3.1 Romans 1.1-17

3.1.1 English text

Salutation

1 Paul, a servant of Jesus Christ, called to be an apostle, set apart for the Good News of God, 2 which he promised before through his prophets in the holy Scriptures, 3 concerning his Son, who was born of the offspring* of David according to the flesh, 4 who was declared to be the Son of God with power, according to the Spirit of holiness, by the resurrection from the dead, Jesus Christ our Lord, 5 through whom we received grace and apostleship for obedience of faith amongst all the nations for his name’s sake; 6 amongst whom you are also called to belong to Jesus Christ; 7 to all who are in Rome, beloved of God, called to be saints: Grace to you and peace from God our Father and the Lord Jesus Christ.

Paul’s Desire to Visit Rome

8 First, I thank my God through Jesus Christ for all of you, that your faith is proclaimed throughout the whole world. 9 For God is my witness, whom I serve in my spirit in the Good News of his Son, how unceasingly I make mention of you always in my prayers, 10 requesting, if by any means now at last I may be prospered by the will of God to come to you. 11 For I long to see you, that I may impart to you some spiritual gift, to the end that you may be established; 12 that is, that I with you may be encouraged in you, each of us by the other’s faith, both yours and mine. 13 Now I don’t desire to have you unaware, brothers, that I often planned to come to you, and was hindered so far, that I might have some fruit amongst you also, even as amongst the rest of the Gentiles. 14 I am debtor both to Greeks and to foreigners, both to the wise and to the foolish. 15 So as much as is in me, I am eager to preach the Good News to you also who are in Rome.

The Power of the Gospel

16 For I am not ashamed of the Good News of Christ, because it is the power of God for salvation for everyone who believes, for the Jew first, and also for the Greek. 17 For in it is revealed God’s righteousness from faith to faith. As it is written, “But the righteous shall live by faith.”✡

3.1.2 Comments

[Romans 1] [1] From Paul, a servant of Jesus Christ

The From …, to …, Greetings! pattern is the normal opening of a Graeco-Roman letter. Paul expands the “from” part to talk about Jesus Christ and uses the “to” part to add that the people he is writing to in Rome are called by God to belong to Jesus Christ. He includes a prayer of thanks as well. (A Jewish thing? A Christian thing? A Paul thing?)

Paul is his Greek name; Saul his Jewish given name. Not a servant, but a slave. Who is this guy, anyway?

who has been called to become an apostle, and has been set apart to tell God’s good news

See Acts 9.15 and Acts 13.2. Jesus Christ and the Holy Spirit did the calling and setting apart.

What is an apostle? The parallel implies it is someone dedicated to God’s Gospel. What would be a modern day equivalent?

God’s good news is the Gospel of Jesus Christ. It is from God the Father, so Romans has God the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit involved from the outset.

[2] This good news God promised long ago through his prophets in the sacred scriptures, [3] concerning his Son, Jesus Christ, our Lord; who, as to his human nature, was descended from David, [4] but, as to the spirit of holiness within him, was miraculously designated Son of God by his resurrection from the dead.

Paul will keep returning to what God has promised (since the beginning) through the prophets and sacred scriptures. Paul, a Hebrew, is talking about the Hebrew Bible here. The various religions alive in Rome had their own sacred scriptures too. (What were the main religions in Rome at the time?)

The Gospel concerns Jesus Christ:

• Christ = anointed one, Messiah. Anointing signifies rulership and priesthood in Jewish thinking.

• God’s son = divine. This term was also used for the king of Israel.

• our Lord = master.

• from David’s line according to human nature

• powerfully designated as God’s son by resurrection from death according to the spirit of holiness.

Saying Jesus of Nazareth is “Christ,” “God’s son,” “our Lord,” or “son of David” could get you into trouble. In Rome, titles such as “Lord” and “God’s son” belonged to Caesar. (See Caesars.) In Jerusalem, the Herods might have thought titles such as “God’s son” and “son of David” applied to them.

What (or who) does “spirit of holiness” refer to? (Greek didn’t use capitals to distinguish between Spirit and spirit.) It is the Hebrew idiom for “Holy Spirit.” Christ’s resurrection is through the Holy Spirit’s power.

[5] Through him we received the gift of the apostolic office, to win submission to the faith among all nations for the glory of his name. [6] And among these nations are you – you who have been called to belong to Jesus Christ.

Who is “we”?

The position of apostle is a “gift.” The word is actually grace.

“Submission to the faith” is literally “obedience of faith.” This might also be rendered “faithful obedience” or “belief that produces obedience.”

These sentences could be interpreted as political: Paul is an envoy of the one true king of Israel (appointed by God!) and wants the nations (ethnics) to pledge allegiance to this king for the “glory of his name.” A Roman ruler might easily construe this as treason. The Gospel is about a change of allegiance (even though Christ said that his kingdom is not of this world).

[7] To all in Rome who are dear to God and have been called to become Christ’s people, may God, our Father, and the Lord Jesus Christ bless you and give you peace.

Here is the “to” part of the “from … to …” pattern of Graeco-Roman letters.

[8] First, I thank my God through Jesus Christ for you all, because the report of your faith is spreading throughout the world.

Paul gives thanks because people in Rome are believing the Good News (Gospel) of Jesus Christ. He does a similar thing in most of his other letters as well.

[9] God, to whom I offer the worship of my soul as I tell the goodness of his Son, is my witness how constantly I mention you when I pray, [10] asking that, if he be willing, I may some day at last find the way open to visit you. [11] For I long to see you, in order to impart to you some spiritual gift and so give you fresh strength – [12] or rather that both you and I may find encouragement in each other’s faith. [13] I want you to know, my friends, that I have many times intended coming to see you – but until now I have been prevented – that I might find among you some fruit of my labours, as I have already among the other nations.

Paul emphasizes that he has wanted to visit the Romans for a long time but has been prevented. (By whom or what?) He wants to impart a spiritual gift. What would that be? (Mutual encouragement might be parallel.)

[14] I have a duty to both the Greek and the barbarian, to both the cultured and the ignorant. [15] And so, for my part, I am ready to tell the good news to you also who are in Rome.

No one is quite sure what kind of mix comprised the Romans to whom Paul wrote, but this phrase points to a non-Jewish audience. They are Greeks (Hellenic culture) and barbarians (others). Barbarians were people who spoke something besides Greek. Were any of Paul’s other letters addressed to barbarians?

“In Rome” is missing from some MSS (manuscripts). Why?

[16] For I am not ashamed of the good news; it is the power of God which brings salvation to everyone who believes, to the Jew first, but also to the Greek. [17] For in it there is a revelation of the divine righteousness resulting from faith and leading on to faith; as scripture says –

Through faith **the righteous** will find life.

divine righteousness] the way to a right relationship (RKM)

the righteous] the person who is in a right relationship (RKM)

Here is Paul’s thesis, a theme he will expand upon in the rest of the letter. A Jew could be offended (shamed) by the Gospel because a central element is the death of Christ on a cross, something cursed under Jewish Law. Even so, God’s Gospel is able (has the power) to bring salvation to everyone who has faith. As Paul will say later, other means, such as obeying the Jewish Law, are powerless to save anyone.

Why “Jew first, but also Greek”? What does this mean? Compare Acts 1.8. It could mean “not only Jews but everyone else as well.” This was a completely new concept at the time – that the God of the Hebrews was interested in other nations as well.

What is “the divine righteousness resulting from faith and leading on to faith”? This right- word is the first occurrence of the Greek δικαι- family of words that Richard K. Moore (RKM) has written a number of books about. Here is his Under the Southern Cross translation of the Greek New Testament (Moore 2014) with δικαι- words in bold. See (Moore 2015) chap. 6 for the entire text of Romans treated this way.

For in the good news the way to a right relationship with God is revealed as a consequence of faith for a life of faith. Just as it stands on record:

It is the person who is in a right relationship as a consequence of faith, who will live.

The relationship is initiated by faith, and the obedience associated with this faith is central to the ongoing relationship (cf. 1.5, 14.23, 16.26) (Moore 2015, 113).

The Hebrew Bible quotation is from Habakkuk 2.4. See Evelyn Ashley’s “By Faith” for a detailed treatment of this important proof text. (Ashley 2002) Here is her conclusion:

The cumulative evidence of all uses of this phrase is that the only life that is acceptable to God is the life of faith. It is only through faith that a person can be brought into a right relationship with God, and it is only through faith that a person can live a life acceptable to God. Such a life of faith will result in a life characterised by faithfulness. Faith and faithfulness go together. Neither is possible without the other. To live a life of faith is to live a life that is faithful to God. Being faithful to God is possible only on the basis of faith.

3.1.3 Summary

• A letter from Paul to the people who are persuaded concerning the good news about Jesus Christ, greetings.

• Paul has wanted to visit these people for a long time but circumstances have prevented it.

• He still hopes to visit so that they can encourage each other because of their common persuasion.

• This good news is what Paul has been commissioned to take to all people, especially those who are not, like him, Hebrew by birth.

• The good news is about the way to have a right relationship with God. From beginning to end the key to a right relationship with God is faith.

3.2 Romans 1.18-32

3.2.1 English text

The Guilt of Mankind

18 For the wrath of God is revealed from heaven against all ungodliness and unrighteousness of men who suppress the truth in unrighteousness, 19 because that which is known of God is revealed in them, for God revealed it to them. 20 For the invisible things of him since the creation of the world are clearly seen, being perceived through the things that are made, even his everlasting power and divinity, that they may be without excuse. 21 Because knowing God, they didn’t glorify him as God, and didn’t give thanks, but became vain in their reasoning, and their senseless heart was darkened. 22 Professing themselves to be wise, they became fools, 23 and traded the glory of the incorruptible God for the likeness of an image of corruptible man, and of birds, four-footed animals, and creeping things.

24 Therefore God also gave them up in the lusts of their hearts to uncleanness, that their bodies should be dishonoured amongst themselves; 25 who exchanged the truth of God for a lie, and worshipped and served the creature rather than the Creator, who is blessed forever. Amen. 26 For this reason, God gave them up to vile passions. For their women changed the natural function into that which is against nature. 27 Likewise also the men, leaving the natural function of the woman, burnt in their lust towards one another, men doing what is inappropriate with men, and receiving in themselves the due penalty of their error. 28 Even as they refused to have God in their knowledge, God gave them up to a reprobate mind, to do those things which are not fitting; 29 being filled with all unrighteousness, sexual immorality, wickedness, covetousness, malice; full of envy, murder, strife, deceit, evil habits, secret slanderers, 30 backbiters, hateful to God, insolent, arrogant, boastful, inventors of evil things, disobedient to parents, 31 without understanding, covenant breakers, without natural affection, unforgiving, unmerciful; 32 who, knowing the ordinance of God, that those who practise such things are worthy of death, not only do the same, but also approve of those who practise them.

3.2.2 Comments

[18] So, too, there is a revelation from heaven of the divine wrath against every form of ungodliness and wickedness on the part of those people who, by their wicked lives, are stifling the truth.

Just as the way to have a right relationship with God is revealed from heaven, so too is God’s anger revealed against the evil things that people do. What forms does God’s anger take? What things would the people in Rome think of when Paul said that God’s anger was being revealed from heaven? Had there been any recent calamities? Did everyone in Rome believe that there is a God in heaven?

God’s anger indicates that something is wrong. Genesis chapters two and three say the same thing. Though not many are saying it today, humanity is not OK with God.

Paul says that people suppress the truth by their wrongdoing. This raises the question of who Paul is talking about here. Many assume that he is talking about the pagan world, but could he be talking about God’s own people? (Paul constantly had trouble with fellow Jews trying to suppress his message.) Let’s see…

[19] This is so, because what can be known about God is plain to them; for God himself has made it plain. [20] For ever since the creation of the universe God’s invisible attributes – his everlasting power and divinity – are to be seen and studied in his works, so that people have no excuse; [21] because, although they learned to know God, yet they did not offer him as God either praise or thanksgiving. Their speculations about him proved futile, and their undiscerning minds were darkened. [22] Professing to be wise, they showed themselves fools; [23] and they transformed the glory of the immortal God into the likeness of mortal humans, and of birds, and beasts, and reptiles.

Item	Jews	non-Jews
God himself has made it plain	Yes	Maybe
his power and divinity revealed	Yes	Maybe
they learned to know God	Yes	Maybe
did not offer God praise or thanksgiving	Yes	Maybe
Their speculations about him proved futile	Yes	Yes
Professed wisdom but displayed foolishness	Yes	Yes
idolized humans, birds, beasts, reptiles	Yes	Yes

(Verse 20 can be rendered “so that they have no excuse.”)

[24] Therefore God abandoned them to impurity, letting them follow the cravings of their hearts, until they dishonoured their own bodies; [25] for they had substituted a lie for the truth about God, and had reverenced and worshiped created things more than the Creator, who is to be praised for ever. Amen. [26] That, I say, is why God abandoned them to degrading passions. Even the women among them perverted the natural use of their bodies to the unnatural; [27] while the men, disregarding that for which women were intended by nature, were consumed with passion for one another. Men indulged in vile practices with men, and incurred in their own persons the inevitable penalty for their perverseness. [28] Then, as they would not keep God before their minds, God abandoned them to depraved thoughts, so that they did all kinds of shameful things. [29] They revelled in every form of wickedness, evil, greed, vice. Their lives were full of envy, murder, quarrelling, treachery, malice. [30] They became back-biters, slanderers, impious, insolent, boastful. They devised new sins. They disobeyed their parents. [31] They were undiscerning, untrustworthy, without natural affection or pity. [32] Well aware of God’s decree, that those who do such things deserve to die, not only are they guilty of them themselves, but they even applaud those who do them.

decree] just decree (RKM)

There are three instances of the word abandoned. The reason God abandoned them to impurity, degrading passions, depraved thoughts was that they substituted a lie for the truth about God, worshipped created things more than the Creator, went against God’s intended human order with respect to male and female, and did not see fit to acknowledge God.

Returning to the question of who Paul is talking about, whether Jew or non-Jew, the case for him thinking of Jews would seem to break down once we get to female-female and male-male sexual relations. I don’t know what stories there were of homosexuality among the Jews. Did Paul, as an insider, know some? Were some of God’s judgments on Israel (as known from their history) interpreted as due to unnatural sexual relationships?

Is homosexuality wrong? Here, Paul regards it as a symptom of being abandoned by God for exchanging the truth about God for a lie and worshipping creation rather than the Creator. (Try putting that into a message and preaching it!) Notice that there are parallels with the creation account of Genesis chapter 1. God creates humanity in his own image – male and female he created them. So male-male and female-female could be regarded as evil because it defies God’s intention with respect to males and females.

The rest of the catalogue of evil would match Jews as well as non-Jews, although verse 32 would seem to sway the balance in favour of Paul thinking of God’s own people. Notice that the first item named in the list of verse 29 is envy, the sin (as covetousness) which gets Paul himself if we read Romans chapter seven as autobiographical. If Paul was thinking primarily of Jews when he talks about evil-doers suppressing the truth by their evil acts then we have in this passage a context for God’s apparent abandonment of Israel, something Paul wrestles with in Romans chapters 9-11.

Verse 32 emphasizes the depravity: these offenders know God is right to condemn what they do yet they approve when others they do the same things. “decree” here is another instance of the δικαι- words, this time δικαίωμα. Dr Moore translates it as “God’s just decree.”

3.2.3 Summary

• God’s anger against those whose wrongdoing suppresses the truth is being revealed from heaven.

• Debasement is caused by wrong belief. God abandons those who exchange the truth for a lie to all kinds of debased behaviour.

• They approve it even though they know it is wrong, deserving judgement.

3.3 Romans 2.1-16

3.3.1 English text

The Righteous Judgment of God

Romans 2 1 Therefore you are without excuse, O man, whoever you are who judge. For in that which you judge another, you condemn yourself. For you who judge practise the same things. 2 We know that the judgement of God is according to truth against those who practise such things. 3 Do you think this, O man who judges those who practise such things, and do the same, that you will escape the judgement of God? 4 Or do you despise the riches of his goodness, forbearance, and patience, not knowing that the goodness of God leads you to repentance? 5 But according to your hardness and unrepentant heart you are treasuring up for yourself wrath in the day of wrath, revelation, and of the righteous judgement of God; 6 who “will pay back to everyone according to their works:”✡ 7 to those who by perseverance in well-doing seek for glory, honour, and incorruptibility, eternal life; 8 but to those who are self-seeking, and don’t obey the truth, but obey unrighteousness, will be wrath, indignation, 9 oppression, and anguish on every soul of man who does evil, to the Jew first, and also to the Greek. 10 But glory, honour, and peace go to every man who does good, to the Jew first, and also to the Greek. 11 For there is no partiality with God. 12 For as many as have sinned without the law will also perish without the law. As many as have sinned under the law will be judged by the law. 13 For it isn’t the hearers of the law who are righteous before God, but the doers of the law will be justified 14 (for when Gentiles who don’t have the law do by nature the things of the law, these, not having the law, are a law to themselves, 15 in that they show the work of the law written in their hearts, their conscience testifying with them, and their thoughts amongst themselves accusing or else excusing them) 16 in the day when God will judge the secrets of men, according to my Good News, by Jesus Christ.

3.3.2 Comments

[Romans 2] [1] Therefore you have nothing to say in your own defence, whoever you are who set yourself up as a judge.

• “Therefore” (διο = “therefore”, “for this reason”): For what reason? What is the antecedent? Maybe Paul has in mind the people he has just described? If Jews then their judgmental attitude against foreigners is now targeted by Paul. He begins to use a kind of rhetoric called “diatribe,” where arguments by anticipated critics are stated so they can be demolished.

How did Paul get so good at getting inside people’s heads? He would have had plenty of arguments because of his message that Jesus is the Messiah, Israel’s hope. Over time he would have perfected his replies. In Romans Paul uses the diatribe device to give some of those answers.

In judging others you condemn yourself, for you who set yourself up as a judge do the very same things. [2] And we know that God’s judgment falls unerringly on those who do them.

Someone might say “Yes, they deserve to be condemned” after hearing the catalogue of vice at the end of chapter one. (The letter would have been read out by someone who could read, maybe even Phoebe, though it would be most unusual for a women to address an audience in Rome.) Paul now skewers the self-proclaimed judge who has just tripped over Jesus’ teaching “Judge not so that you be judged not”.

Notice that Paul says “we.” This could indicate that he is talking to Jews in the audience, though “we” might also be “we believers.”

[3] You who judge those that do such things and yet are yourself guilty of them – do you suppose that you of all people will escape God’s judgment? [4] Or do you think lightly of his abundant kindness, patience, and forbearance, not realising that his kindness is meant to lead you to repentance? [5] Hard-hearted and impenitent as you are, you are storing up for yourself wrath on the day of wrath, when God’s justice as a judge will be revealed;

justice as a judge] righteous judgment (RKM)

Me thinking that I am immuned from God’s judgement is a big mistake. I’m actually despising his kindness and patience, which I should instead take as an opportunity to change from wrong to right (i.e. to repent). If I continue to ignore God’s patience then I’m adding to the store of anger that will be revealed on the day of anger (i.e. Judgement Day), when God’s righteous judgments will be revealed. The phrase “justice as a judge” translates δικαιοκρισιασ, which combines “right” (δικαιο) and “judgment” (κρισιασ) parts.

The next part might come as a surprise:

[6] for he will give to everyone what their actions deserve. [7] To those who, by perseverance in doing good, aim at glory, honour, and all that is imperishable, he will give immortal life; [8] while as to those who are factious, and disobedient to truth but obedient to evil, wrath and anger, distress and despair, [9] will fall on every human being who persists in wrong-doing – on the Jew first, but also on the Greek. [10] But there will be glory, honour, and peace for everyone who does right – for the Jew first, but also for the Greek, [11] since God shows no partiality.

Paul says God is going to judge people according to what they have done. He does not say it is OK to keep doing wrong. Instead he says that distress and despair (anger and fury) will fall on people who persist in doing wrong. This applies to Jews and non-Jews, to God’s people and everyone else as well. God’s judgement will be impartial and fair, repaying good with good and bad with bad according to what people have actually done.

[12] All who, when they sin, are without Law will also perish without Law; while all who, when they sin, are under Law, will be judged as being under Law. [13] It is not those who hear the words of a Law that are righteous before God, but it is those who obey it that will be pronounced righteous. [14] When Gentiles, who have no Law, do instinctively what the Law requires, they, though they have no Law, are a Law to themselves; [15] for they show the demands of the Law written on their hearts; their consciences corroborating it, while in their thoughts they argue either in self-accusation or, it may be, in self-defence – [16] on the day when God passes judgment on people’s inmost lives, as the good news that I tell declares that he will do through Christ Jesus.

righteous] in a right relationship (RKM)

will be pronounced righteous] will be brought into a right relationship (RKM)

There are two δικαι- words here: “For the right are not [just] hearers of the Law; [instead] doers of the Law will be in a right relationship with God.”

Concerning how people will be judged, the question of standards comes into play. Which law will apply? Isn’t the Law of Moses universal? Aren’t Jews better off because they know God’s Law? Paul says no. Having the Law and Prophets – a distinguishing point for the Jews – doesn’t help unless you obey them. In fact, those who don’t have this law (i.e. non-Jews) but naturally carry out the Law’s requirements (e.g. by loving each other) put to shame those who have the Law but don’t do its requirements (e.g. by hating each other).

The “Law written on their hearts” sounds like Jeremiah’s new covenant passage Jer 31.31-34. However, Jeremiah is speaking of Israel and Judah instead of non-Jews. (The new covenant passage of Jeremiah is where we get our New Testament and Old Testament terminology.)

A person’s conscience will play a role in the day “when God will judge the hidden affairs of human beings through Christ Jesus, in accordance with the good news I proclaim.” (Moore 2014) This is common ground for all humanity. Our own consciences will in some respects condemn and in other respects acquit. No one knows my hidden affairs but me and God. But among those hidden affairs remain ones that make me culpable, deserving condemnation.

Part of the Gospel according to Paul is that Jesus Christ has been appointed judge of all humanity. See for example Luke’s account of Paul’s sermon on Mars Hill in Athens at Acts 17.22-31.

3.3.3 Summary

• Don’t think you are immuned from God’s judgement. Even if you condemn culpable acts, you are just as liable to God’s judgement when you do what you condemn.

• God’s judgment does not acquit the guilty. It is unerring.

• Do not mistake God’s forbearance for tolerance; you need to change. Continuing in defiance of God just adds to the store of retribution to be handed down on the Day of Anger.

• People will be repaid as their actions deserve, good or bad. Being Jewish or not being Jewish makes no difference. You will be judged by an impartial judge, who is none other than Jesus Christ, and your conscience will serve as a witness.

3.4 Romans 2.17-3.8

3.4.1 English text

The Jews and the Law

[17] But, perhaps, you bear the name of “Jew,” and are relying on Law, and boast of belonging to God, and understand his will, [18] and, having been carefully instructed from the Law, have learned to appreciate the finer moral distinctions. [19] Perhaps you are confident that you are a guide to the blind, a light to those who are in the dark, an instructor of the unintelligent, [20] and a teacher of the childish, because in the Law you possess the outline of all knowledge and truth. [21] Why, then, you teacher of others, don’t you teach yourself? Do you preach against stealing, and yet steal? [22] Do you forbid adultery, and yet commit adultery? Do you loathe idols, and yet plunder temples? [23] Boasting, as you do, of your Law, do you dishonour God by breaking the Law? [24] For, as scripture says –

The Gentiles insult God’s name because of you.

[25] Circumcision has its value, if you are obeying the Law. But, if you are a breaker of the Law, your circumcision is no better than uncircumcision. [26] If, then, an uncircumcised man pays regard to the requirements of the Law, won’t he, although not circumcised, be regarded by God as if he were? [27] Indeed, the person who, owing to his birth, remains uncircumcised, and yet scrupulously obeys the Law, will condemn you, who, for all your written Law and your circumcision, are yet a breaker of the Law. [28] For a man who is only a Jew outwardly is not a real Jew; nor is outward bodily circumcision real circumcision. The real Jew is the person who is a Jew in soul; [29] and the real circumcision is the circumcision of the heart, a spiritual and not a literal thing. Such a person wins praise from God, though not from people.

[Romans 3] [1] What is the advantage, then, of being a Jew? Or what is the good of circumcision? [2] Great in every way. First of all, because the Jews were entrusted with God’s utterances. [3] What follows then? Some, no doubt, showed a want of faith; but will their want of faith make God break faith? Heaven forbid! [4] God must prove true, though everyone prove a liar! As scripture says of God –

That you may be pronounced righteous in what you say,
and gain your cause when people would judge you.

[5] But what if our wrong-doing makes God’s righteousness all the clearer? Will God be wrong in inflicting punishment? (I can but speak as a person.) Heaven forbid! [6] Otherwise how can God judge the world? [7] But, if my falsehood redounds to the glory of God, by making his truthfulness more apparent, why am I like others, still condemned as a sinner? [8] Why should we not say – as some people slanderously assert that we do say – “Let us do evil that good may come”? The condemnation of such people is indeed just!

3.4.2 Comments

[17] But, perhaps, you bear the name of “Jew,” and are relying on Law, and boast of belonging to God, and understand his will, [18] and, having been carefully instructed from the Law, have learned to appreciate the finer moral distinctions. [19] Perhaps you are confident that you are a guide to the blind, a light to those who are in the dark, an instructor of the unintelligent, [20] and a teacher of the childish, because in the Law you possess the outline of all knowledge and truth. [21] Why, then, you teacher of others, don’t you teach yourself? Do you preach against stealing, and yet steal? [22] Do you forbid adultery, and yet commit adultery? Do you loathe idols, and yet plunder temples? [23] Boasting, as you do, of your Law, do you dishonour God by breaking the Law? [24] For, as scripture says –

The Gentiles insult God’s name because of you.

At v. 17 Paul uses the diatribe method again, anticipating a reaction from Jews in the audience.

“A guide to the blind, a light to those in the dark, an instructor of the ignorant, a teacher of the childish.” Remembering that Paul described himself as a Hebrew of Hebrews (Phil 3.5), he might here be saying what Jewish teachers said about themselves. That might be why Jesus’ talked about blind guides.

Is it a coincidence that the part of Luke where Jesus talks about blind guides also says “Do not judge and you will not be judged,” “A pupil is not above his teacher,” and “Why do you look at the speck that is in your brother’s eye, but do not notice the log that is in your own eye?” Luke 6.37-42

Loathe idols yet plunder temples

The Hebrew Bible has strong lessons against Jews touching anything from a pagan temple (Deut 7.25-26, Josh 7.1-26). There doesn’t seem to be anything definite from Paul’s time saying that Jews were robbing pagan temples, although Josephus (Antiquities 18.81-84) mentions an incident where four Roman Jews swindled a noble Roman woman by convincing her to donate money for the temple in Jerusalem then took off with the money. Tiberius, who was emperor at the time (19 AD), reacted by expelling all Jews from Rome. (Bruce 1985, 88)

Another possibility is that Paul here alludes to Jesus having to clear the temple of money changers. Luke 19.45-46

Hypocrisy by “God’s people” gives God a bad name.

[25] Circumcision has its value, if you are obeying the Law. But, if you are a breaker of the Law, your circumcision is no better than uncircumcision. [26] If, then, an uncircumcised man pays regard to the requirements of the Law, won’t he, although not circumcised, be regarded by God as if he were? [27] Indeed, the person who, owing to his birth, remains uncircumcised, and yet scrupulously obeys the Law, will condemn you, who, for all your written Law and your circumcision, are yet a breaker of the Law. [28] For a man who is only a Jew outwardly is not a real Jew; nor is outward bodily circumcision real circumcision. The real Jew is the person who is a Jew in soul; [29] and the real circumcision is the circumcision of the heart, a spiritual and not a literal thing. Such a person wins praise from God, though not from people.

requirements of the Law] things the Law quite rightly and properly requires (RKM)

“Circumcision” here is best understood as a collective noun meaning “Jewish,” and “uncircumcision” as “Non-Jewish.” (See Eph 2.11.) So, “Being Jewish has value if you are obeying the Law but if you break the Law then you are no better than the pagans.”

Verse 26 uses a δικαι- word, δικαιωματα, which the Authorised Version translates as “the righteousness of the law.”

[Romans 3] [1] What is the advantage, then, of being a Jew? Or what is the good of circumcision? [2] Great in every way. First of all, because the Jews were entrusted with God’s utterances. [3] What follows then? Some, no doubt, showed a want of faith; but will their want of faith make God break faith? Heaven forbid! [4] God must prove true, though everyone prove a liar!

What … faith? ] What if some of them proved unfaithful? Surely their unfaithfulness doesn’t cancel God’s faithfulness, does it? (RKM)

The sentence starts with Greek τι ουν (what then … ?). This phrase serves as a clue to the rhetorical structure of Romans. It recurs at a number of places where Paul’s diatribe supplies questions that his apology (i.e. the content of Romans apart from its letter-like beginning and end) proceeds to answer. These questions may well be the exact same ones put to Paul by his adversaries, namely members of the Jewish and Greek mindsets who opposed his message.

What’s the point of being a Jew if there is no advantage to it? Paul says there is a great advantage, which is having God’s oracles in the form of the Law, the Prophets, and the Writings.

“Some … showed a want of faith.” RKM translates this as “What if some of them proved unfaithful?” Cf. Hebrews 3.18-19.

As scripture says of God –

That you **may be pronounced righteous** in what you say,
and gain your cause when people would judge you.

[5] But what if our wrong-doing makes God’s righteousness all the clearer? Will God be wrong in inflicting punishment? (I can but speak as a person.) Heaven forbid! [6] Otherwise how can God judge the world? [7] But, if my falsehood redounds to the glory of God, by making his truthfulness more apparent, why am I like others, still condemned as a sinner? [8] Why should we not say – as some people slanderously assert that we do say – “Let us do evil that good may come”? The condemnation of such people is indeed just!

may be pronounced righteous] may be shown to be in the right (RKM)

makes God’s righteousness all the clearer] establishes the fact that God is in the right (RKM)

Someone has been slandering Paul saying (incredulously): “What? You mean ‘Be bad so that God’s goodness can be clearly seen?!’”

Paul uses Hebrew scripture to prove his point that God does what is right regardless of whether his people are unfaithful. His right action includes judgment and punishment.

3.4.3 Summary

• You are making a mistake if you are Jewish and think that having the Law makes you special: when “God’s people” break that Law they give God a bad name.

• Being Jewish has value if you are obeying the Law but if you break the Law then you are no better than the pagans.

• God is faithful (or, better, trustworthy) even if his people are not.

3.5 Romans 3.9-31

3.5.1 English text

There is None Righteous

[9] What follows, then? Are we Jews in any way superior to others? Not at all. Our indictment against both Jews and Greeks was that all alike were in subjection to sin. [10] As scripture says –

There is not even one who is righteous,
[11] not one who understands,
not one who is searching for God!
[12] They have all gone astray;
they have one and all become depraved;
there is no one who is doing good – no, not one!
[13] Their throats are like opened graves;
they deceive with their tongues.
The venom of snakes lies behind their lips,
[14] And their mouths are full of bitter curses.
[15] Swift are their feet to shed blood.
[16] Distress and trouble dog their steps,
[17] and the path of peace they do not know.
[18] The fear of God is not before their eyes.

[19] Now we know that everything said in the Law is addressed to those who are under its authority, in order that every mouth may be closed, and to bring the whole world under God’s judgment. [20] For no human being will be pronounced righteous before God as the result of obedience to Law; for it is Law that shows what sin is.

Righteousness through Faith

[21] But now, quite apart from Law, the divine righteousness stands revealed, and to it the Law and the prophets bear witness – [22] the divine righteousness which is bestowed, through faith in Jesus Christ, on all, without distinction, who believe in him. [23] For all have sinned, and all fall short of God’s glorious ideal, [24] but, in his loving kindness, are being freely pronounced righteous through the deliverance found in Christ Jesus. [25] For God set him before the world, to be, by the shedding of his blood, a means of reconciliation through faith. And this God did to prove his righteousness, and because, in his forbearance, he had passed over the sins that people had previously committed; [26] as a proof, I repeat, at the present time, of his own righteousness, that he might be righteous in our eyes, and might pronounce righteous the person who takes their stand on faith in Jesus.

[27] What, then, becomes of our boasting? It is excluded. By what sort of Law? A Law requiring obedience? No, a Law requiring faith. [28] For we conclude that a person is pronounced righteous on the ground of faith, quite apart from obedience to Law. [29] Or can it be that God is the God only of the Jews? Isn’t he also the God of the Gentiles? [30] Yes, of the Gentiles also, since there is only one God, and he will pronounce those who are circumcised righteous as the result of faith, and also those who are uncircumcised on their showing the same faith. [31] Do we, then, use this faith to abolish Law? Heaven forbid! No, we establish Law.

3.5.2 Comments

[9] What follows, then? Are we Jews in any way superior to others? Not at all. Our indictment against both Jews and Greeks was that all alike were in subjection to sin.

[10] As scripture says –

There is not even one who is **righteous**,
[11] not one who understands,
not one who is searching for God!
[12] They have all gone astray;
they have one and all become depraved;
there is no one who is doing good – no, not one!
[13] Their throats are like opened graves;
they deceive with their tongues.
The venom of snakes lies behind their lips,
[14] And their mouths are full of bitter curses.
[15] Swift are their feet to shed blood.
[16] Distress and trouble dog their steps,
[17] and the path of peace they do not know.
[18] The fear of God is not before their eyes.

[19] Now we know that everything said in the Law is addressed to those who are under its authority, in order that every mouth may be closed, and to bring the whole world under God’s judgment. [20] For no human being will be pronounced righteous before God as the result of obedience to Law; for it is Law that shows what sin is.

righteous] righteous (RKM)

will be pronounced righteous] will be brought into a right relationship (RKM)

At verse 9 Paul makes clear that all are in the same predicament whether Jewish or not: they are all under sin.

[21] But now, quite apart from Law, the divine righteousness stands revealed, and to it the Law and the prophets bear witness – [22] the divine righteousness which is bestowed, through faith in Jesus Christ, on all, without distinction, who believe in him. [23] For all have sinned, and all fall short of God’s glorious ideal, [24] but, in his loving kindness, are being freely pronounced righteous through the deliverance found in Christ Jesus. [25] For God set him before the world, to be, by the shedding of his blood, a means of reconciliation through faith. And this God did to prove his righteousness, and because, in his forbearance, he had passed over the sins that people had previously committed; [26] as a proof, I repeat, at the present time, of his own righteousness, that he might be righteous in our eyes, and might pronounce righteous the person who takes their stand on faith in Jesus.

divine righteousness] the way to a right relationship (RKM)

divine righteousness] right relationship (RKM)

pronounced righteous] brought into a right relationship (RKM)

his righteousness] the rightness of his action (RKM)

his own righteousness] the rightness of his action (RKM)

righteous] in the right (RKM)

pronounce righteous] bring a person into right relationship (RKM)

According to Richard Moore (Moore 2015, 121), three corollaries follow from 3.21-26:

1. There is no place for human bragging (because their rightness is a gift from God, not something they merit). (3.27-28)

2. Belief is the only way to obtain rightness before God. This applies to both Jews and Gentiles. (3.29-30)

3. This does not nullify the Law; instead, it establishes the Law. (3.31)

Paul expands on these three points in the following chapters.

[27] What, then, becomes of our boasting? It is excluded. By what sort of Law? A Law requiring obedience? No, a Law requiring faith. [28] For we conclude that a person is pronounced righteous on the ground of faith, quite apart from obedience to Law. [29] Or can it be that God is the God only of the Jews? Isn’t he also the God of the Gentiles? [30] Yes, of the Gentiles also, since there is only one God, and he will pronounce those who are circumcised righteous as the result of faith, and also those who are uncircumcised on their showing the same faith. [31] Do we, then, use this faith to abolish Law? Heaven forbid! No, we establish Law.

is pronounced righteous] is brought into a right relationship (RKM)

will pronounce … righteous] will bring … into a right relationship (RKM)

We establish the Law: cf. Matt 5.17 where Jesus says “Do not think that I came to abolish the Law or the Prophets; I did not come to abolish but to fulfill.”

3.5.3 Summary

• Everyone has failed before God. Both Jews and Greeks are in the same boat.

• The law speaks so that people will shut their mouths before God – no answering back. The Law speaks to Jews, and natural law speaks to Greeks. All are accountable to God and stand silenced before him. All have sinned and all know it.

• Now for the good news! Another kind of rightness with respect to God is being unveiled. It is a different kind of rightness to that associated with obeying the Law (or, alternatively, natural law). The new kind of rightness is attested by the Law and Prophets: it is a rightness with God that is given to people as a free gift when they believe in the validity of God’s sacrifice. This kind of rightness is available to Jews and Greeks alike.

• No one can brag about this kind of rightness before God because they can’t earn it. It is a gift from God.

• This does not destroy the Law. Instead, it establishes the Law.

3.6 Romans 4.1-12

3.6.1 English text

The Example of Abraham

[Romans 4] [1] What then, it may be asked, are we to say about Abraham, the ancestor of our nation? [2] If he was pronounced righteous as the result of obedience, then he has something to boast of. Yes, but not before God. [3] For what are the words of scripture?

Abraham had faith in God, and his faith was regarded by God as righteousness.

[4] Now wages are regarded as due to the person who works, not as a favour, but as a debt; [5] while, as for the person who does not rely on their obedience, but has faith in him who can pronounce the godless righteous, their faith is regarded by God as righteousness. [6] In precisely the same way David speaks of the blessing pronounced on the person who is regarded by God as righteous apart from actions –

[7] Blessed are those whose wrong-doings have been forgiven
and over whose sins a veil has been drawn!
[8] Blessed the man whom the Lord will never regard as sinful!

[9] Is this blessing, then, pronounced on the circumcised only or on the uncircumcised as well? We say that –

Abraham’s faith was regarded by God as righteousness.

[10] Under what circumstances, then, did this take place? After his circumcision or before it? [11] Not after, but before. And it was as a sign of this that he received the rite of circumcision – to show the righteousness due to the faith of an uncircumcised man – in order that he might be the father of all who have faith in God even when uncircumcised, so that they also may be regarded by God as righteous; [12] as well as father of the circumcised – to those who are not only circumcised, but who also follow our father Abraham in that faith which he had while still uncircumcised.

3.6.2 Comments

[Romans 4] [1] What then, it may be asked, are we to say about Abraham, the ancestor of our nation? [2] If he was pronounced righteous as the result of obedience, then he has something to boast of. Yes, but not before God. [3] For what are the words of scripture?

Abraham had faith in God, and his faith was regarded by God as **righteousness**.

was pronounced righteous] was brought into a right relationship (RKM)

righteousness] a right relationship (RKM)

Verse 1 begins with another instance of the phrase τι ουν (what then), signalling that this is another question put by Paul’s antagonist. The question is “What about Abraham?” The antagonist’s point would then be that Abraham’s life goes against what Paul is saying.

John the Baptist had something to say about relying on Abraham’s merit (Matt 3.7-10 OEB):

7 But when John saw many of the Pharisees and Sadducees coming to receive his baptism, he said to them, “You children of snakes! Who has prompted you to seek refuge from the coming judgment? 8 Let your life, then, prove your repentance; 9 and do not think that you can say among yourselves ‘Abraham is our ancestor,’ for I tell you that out of these stones God is able to raise descendants for Abraham! 10 Already the axe is lying at the root of the trees. Therefore every tree that fails to bear good fruit will be cut down and thrown into the fire.

However, Paul does not use the question to dispel the error of relying on ancestry. Instead, he uses it to show that the basis of right standing with God is belief, not Law work. It therefore seems that the “What about Abraham” question implies that Abraham earned a good relationship with God by obeying commandments. Why would anyone think that? (See Genesis 22. By the way, chiasmus points to verse 8.)

Paul admits that Abraham has something to be proud of (καυχημα). He can boast (before people) that he has passed a really hard test from God. Nevertheless, Paul maintains that this is not the basis of Abraham’s right standing before God. Abraham’s right standing is instead based on belief, and Paul uses Genesis 15.6 to prove the point.

[4] Now wages are regarded as due to the person who works, not as a favour, but as a debt; [5] while, as for the person who does not rely on their obedience, but has faith in him who can pronounce the godless righteous, their faith is regarded by God as righteousness.

pronounce … righteous] bring … into a right relationship (RKM)

righteousness] a right relationship (RKM)

God doesn’t owe Abraham the right standing he enjoys. Here is a summary of everything so far: God doesn’t owe anyone anything yet will give his δικαισυνη to anyone who believes.

[6] In precisely the same way David speaks of the blessing pronounced on the person who is regarded by God as righteous apart from actions –

[7] Blessed are those whose wrong-doings have been forgiven
and over whose sins a veil has been drawn!
[8] Blessed the man whom the Lord will never regard as sinful!

righteous] in a right relationship (RKM)

Paul quotes David (Psalm 32.1-2) as additional proof. The Greek word λογιζομαι used repeatedly in these verses also occurs in the LXX (i.e. Greek translation) of Genesis 15.6 and Psalm 32.2. It is variously translated as count, reckon, calculate, credit, impute, and a range of other possibilities. (See (Newman 2010) for a full list of possibilities.) The Hebrew word that the LXX translates as λογιζομαι is chashab.

The parallelism of Psalm 32.1-2 associates forgiveness (αφεσισ = pardon, cancel debt, set free) with this reckoning. (Cf. Luke 4.18-19, where Jesus announces his mission.)

[9] Is this blessing, then, pronounced on the circumcised only or on the uncircumcised as well? We say that –

Abraham’s faith was regarded by God as **righteousness**.

[10] Under what circumstances, then, did this take place? After his circumcision or before it? [11] Not after, but before. And it was as a sign of this that he received the rite of circumcision – to show the righteousness due to the faith of an uncircumcised man – in order that he might be the father of all who have faith in God even when uncircumcised, so that they also may be regarded by God as righteous; [12] as well as father of the circumcised – to those who are not only circumcised, but who also follow our father Abraham in that faith which he had while still uncircumcised.

righteousness] a right relationship (RKM)

righteousness] right relationship (RKM)

righteous] being in a right relationship (RKM)

The next question is whether God’s gift of right standing can be given to non-Jews. After all, both Abraham and David are Jewish. (You can usually read “Jewish” and “not Jewish” whenever you see “circumcised” and “uncircumcised.” Not always though, as this section proves.)

Paul says “we maintain that faith was regarded as the basis for a right relationship” (Moore 2015, 122). Who is we? If not the royal “we” then it is Paul and others. Would James, John, and Peter agree? It would be much easier for non-Jews than Jews to accept this point. “We” is more likely to be Paul, Timothy, Silas, Luke, and the others directly concerned with the mission to non-Jews. (It could also mean Paul and the Roman believers.)

Paul makes an astounding point. Abraham, the paragon of Jewish virtue, had right standing with God Gen 15) before he took on the sign of the covenant (Gen 17), as proved by the order of events in Genesis. (Would you use an argument from order in Genesis to prove a point today?) Just as Abraham was uncircumcised, he became father of the uncircumcised who believe. (Is this literally true?) And just as Abraham was circumcised, he became father of the circumcised who believe. Richard Moore writes, “it is faith that provides the spiritual bridge to Abraham.” (Moore 2015, 123)

3.6.3 Summary

• What about Abraham? What is the basis of his right standing with God? Paul uses the Law and Prophets to prove that Abraham received right standing as a gift from God before doing anything that might earn him right relationship as a payment.

• All who have right standing before God through belief are Abraham’s children, whether Jewish or not.

3.7 Romans 4.13-25

3.7.1 English text

The Promise Realized through Faith

[13] For the promise that he should inherit the world did not come to Abraham or his descendants through Law, but through the righteousness due to faith. [14] If those who take their stand on Law are to inherit the world, then faith is robbed of its meaning and the promise comes to nothing! [15] Law entails punishment; but, where no Law exists, no breach of it is possible. [16] That is why everything is made to depend on faith: so that everything may be God’s gift, and in order that the fulfilment of the promise may be made certain for all Abraham’s descendants – not only for those who take their stand on the Law, but also for those who take their stand on the faith of Abraham. He is the Father of us all; [17] as scripture says –

I have made you the Father of many nations.

And this they do in the sight of that God in whom Abraham had faith, and who gives life to the dead, and speaks of what does not yet exist as if it did. [18] With no ground for hope, Abraham, sustained by hope, put faith in God; in order that, in fulfilment of the words –

So many will your descendants be,

he might become

the Father of many nations.

[19] Though he was nearly a hundred years old, yet his faith did not fail him, even when he thought of his own body, then utterly worn out, and remembered that Sarah was past bearing children. [20] He was not led by want of faith to doubt God’s promise. [21] On the contrary, his faith gave him strength; and he praised God, in the firm conviction that what God has promised he is also able to carry out. [22] And therefore his faith

was regarded as righteousness.

[23] Now these words – “it was regarded as righteousness” – were not written with reference to Abraham only; [24] but also with reference to us. Our faith, too, will be regarded by God in the same light, if we have faith in him who raised Jesus, our Lord, from the dead; [25] for Jesus was given up to death to atone for our offences, and was raised to life that we might be pronounced righteous.

3.7.2 Comments

[13] For the promise that he should inherit the world did not come to Abraham or his descendants through Law, but through the righteousness due to faith.

[14] If those who take their stand on Law are to inherit the world, then faith is robbed of its meaning and the promise comes to nothing! [15] Law entails punishment; but, where no Law exists, no breach of it is possible. [16] That is why everything is made to depend on faith: so that everything may be God’s gift, and in order that the fulfilment of the promise may be made certain for all Abraham’s descendants – not only for those who take their stand on the Law, but also for those who take their stand on the faith of Abraham. He is the Father of us all; [17] as scripture says –

I have made you the Father of many nations.

And this they do in the sight of that God in whom Abraham had faith, and who gives life to the dead, and speaks of what does not yet exist as if it did. [18] With no ground for hope, Abraham, sustained by hope, put faith in God; in order that, in fulfilment of the words –

So many will your descendants be,

he might become

the Father of many nations.

righteousness] right relationship (RKM)

Paul continues to demonstrate that the basis of Abraham’s inheritance from God is belief, not Law. Here is the logic: if Abraham’s blessings are due to his obedience then the promise God made him before Abraham did anything is worthless. If those of the Law are heirs then God’s promise is null and Abraham’s trust is void.

Verse 15 then gives a detail about the Law, a detour from the main line of reasoning. “Law works anger.” That is, penalties follow when the Law is broken. However, where there is no law, there is no overstepping (παραβασισ). F. F. Bruce (Bruce 1985, 111) says “Paul appears to be enunciating a current legal maxim (like the Roman maxim nulla poena sine lege).” (“No punishment without law.”)

In verse 16 Paul resumes his demonstration that the key to Abraham’s blessing is his belief in God, not his obeying Law.

“Therefore this [i.e. promise of inheritance of the world] [is] from faith for the promise to be sure for all of Abraham’s children.” (Is this reminiscent of the “from faith to faith” phrase of chapter one? Here it has “from faith, that it may be according to grace, to the promise being firm.”) The promise is to all of Abraham’s children, not only Law’s children (i.e. Jews) but also faith’s (i.e. Gentile believers).

The premise is implied, not stated. God’s promise is a promise and God, being God, does not break promises. God’s promise-keeping nature is the guarantee of the blessing. Abraham’s part is to believe what God has said. Abraham’s inheritance of the world rests on God’s promise and is realised through belief, in spite of apparently overwhelming obstacles. Hebrews chapter 11 gives a similar account of Abraham’s faith being the substance of things hoped for. Abraham believes in the God “who gives life to the dead and calls into existence the things that do not exist.”

[19] Though he was nearly a hundred years old, yet his faith did not fail him, even when he thought of his own body, then utterly worn out, and remembered that Sarah was past bearing children. [20] He was not led by want of faith to doubt God’s promise. [21] On the contrary, his faith gave him strength; and he praised God, in the firm conviction that what God has promised he is also able to carry out. [22] And therefore his faith

was regarded as **righteousness**.

righteousness] a right relationship (RKM)

The kind of faith that counts as right standing focusses on God’s trustworthy nature rather than circumstances. It is a source of strength.

[23] Now these words – “it was regarded as righteousness” – were not written with reference to Abraham only; [24] but also with reference to us. Our faith, too, will be regarded by God in the same light, if we have faith in him who raised Jesus, our Lord, from the dead; [25] for Jesus was given up to death to atone for our offences, and was raised to life that we might be pronounced righteous.

we might be pronounced righteous] we might be brought into a right relationship (RKM)

Here is the conclusion: just as Abraham’s belief of God’s promise counts as right standing for him, so our belief in the the God who raised Jesus from the dead counts as right standing for us. Here the reason for Jesus’ death is plainly stated: he was delivered [to death] because of our offences, and raised to life for the purpose of our right standing.

3.7.3 Summary

3.8 Romans 5.1-11

3.8.1 English text

Results of Justification

[Romans 5] [1] Therefore, having been pronounced righteous as the result of faith, let us enjoy peace with God through Jesus Christ, our Lord. [2] It is through him that, by reason of our faith, we have obtained admission to that place in God’s favour in which we now stand. So let us exult in our hope of attaining God’s glorious ideal. [3] And not only that, but let us also exult in our troubles; [4] for we know that trouble develops endurance, and endurance strength of character, and strength of character hope, [5] and that hope never disappoints. For the love of God has filled our hearts through the Holy Spirit which was given us; [6] seeing that, while we were still powerless, Christ, in God’s good time, died on behalf of the godless. [7] Even for an upright person scarcely anyone will die. For a really good person perhaps someone might even dare to die. [8] But God puts his love for us beyond all doubt by the fact that Christ died on our behalf while we were still sinners. [9] Much more, then, now that we have been pronounced righteous by virtue of the shedding of his blood, will we be saved through him from the wrath of God. [10] For if, when we were God’s enemies, we were reconciled to him through the death of his Son, much more, now that we have become reconciled, will we be saved by virtue of Christ’s life. [11] And not only that, but we exult in God, through Jesus Christ, our Lord, through whom we have now obtained this reconciliation.

3.8.2 Comments

[Romans 5] [1] Therefore, having been pronounced righteous as the result of faith, let us enjoy peace with God through Jesus Christ, our Lord. [2] It is through him that, by reason of our faith, we have obtained admission to that place in God’s favour in which we now stand. So let us exult in our hope of attaining God’s glorious ideal. [3] And not only that, but let us also exult in our troubles; [4] for we know that trouble develops endurance, and endurance strength of character, and strength of character hope, [5] and that hope never disappoints. For the love of God has filled our hearts through the Holy Spirit which was given us;

having been pronounced righteous] having been brought into a right relationship (RKM)

Paul now turns his attention to the outcomes of the right standing with God given as a gift to those who believe. The first outcome is peace with God. A textual variant here presents two possibilities:

1. “Therefore, we are at peace with God…”

2. “Therefore, we can be at peace with God…”

The difference is between a long or short “o” sound (εχομεν or εχωμεν). Which should we prefer? The balance of textual evidence inclines towards εχωμεν (i.e. the subjunctive). Nevertheless, the UBS editors favour εχομεν (i.e. the indicative):

Since in this passage it appears that Paul is not exhorting but stating facts (“peace” is the possession of those who have been justified), only the indicative is consonant with the apostle’s argument. Since the difference in pronunciation between ο and ω in the Hellenistic age was almost non-existent, when Paul dictated ἔχoμεν, Tertius, his amanuensis (16.22), may have written down ἔχωμεν. (B. M. Metzger 2005, 452)

Having been set right through belief, we enjoy great benefits. Through Jesus Christ we have peace with God and have obtained access into this grace (favour, mercy, goodwill, kindness, gift, blessing) in which we stand, and get loud about the hope of God’s glory. (This really is something to get loud about.)

Getting loud about the hope of God’s glory is a segue into something else to get loud about: trouble. What?! What’s so great about trouble?

Trouble works patience.

Patience works proven character.

Proven character works hope.

This is a “sorite,” a rhetorical chain linking two ends through a series of intermediates. The idea of trouble ultimately producing hope may seem strange to us though not to Paul and his contemoraries. “The Stoics also held that character is tested and refined by trial and suffering.” (Byrne 2007, 166) Christ is the ultimate example of trouble producing hope through character proving endurance and God’s resurrection power.

This hope (or stairway from trouble to hope) doesn’t leave us downcast. Why? Because God’s love has been poured out in our hearts by the Holy Spirit given to us. God’s Spirit and God’s love are intertwined. God’s gift of the Spirit is proof of the right standing enjoyed through trust. God’s Spirit manifests as love in our hearts. God is love.

[6] seeing that, while we were still powerless, Christ, in God’s good time, died on behalf of the godless. [7] Even for an upright person scarcely anyone will die. For a really good person perhaps someone might even dare to die. [8] But God puts his love for us beyond all doubt by the fact that Christ died on our behalf while we were still sinners.

upright person] right-living person (RKM)

The proof of God’s love is that at the time we were being weak, Christ died on behalf of the profane (ασεβων). Hardly anyone will die for someone who is right. Someone might take a bullet for the good, but would anyone die for a low life? That is what Christ did. God’s demonstration of his love (αγαπη) is that while we were being bad characters Christ died on behalf of us.

[9] Much more, then, now that we have been pronounced righteous by virtue of the shedding of his blood, will we be saved through him from the wrath of God. [10] For if, when we were God’s enemies, we were reconciled to him through the death of his Son, much more, now that we have become reconciled, will we be saved by virtue of Christ’s life. [11] And not only that, but we exult in God, through Jesus Christ, our Lord, through whom we have now obtained this reconciliation.

we have been pronounced righteous] we have been brought into a right relationship (RKM)

According to Richard Moore (Moore 2015, 126), “Paul now employs a series of a minori ad maius arguments (reasoning that if the lesser case holds true, then how much more the greater case does).”

1. Having been put right by Christ’s blood (i.e. his sacrifice), we will all the more be saved from the anger (i.e. judgment).

2. If being enemies we were reconciled to God through the death of his Son, we will all the more be save by his life.

These parallels bind together Christ’s death and life, right standing with God, and future rescue. The future rescue is even more wonderful than the right standing already enjoyed.

That is not all. We also boast in God through our master, Jesus Christ, by whom we received reconciliation in the now.

3.8.3 Summary

3.9 Romans 5.12-21

3.9.1 English text

Adam and Christ

[12] Therefore, just as sin came into the world through one man, and through sin came death; so, also, death spread to all humanity, because every person has sinned. [13] Even before the time of the Law there was sin in the world; but sin cannot be charged against someone where no Law exists. [14] Yet, from Adam to Moses, death reigned even over those whose sin was not a breach of a law, as Adam’s was. And Adam foreshadows the One to come.

[15] But there is a contrast between Adam’s offence and God’s gracious gift. For, if by reason of the offence of the one man the whole human race died, far more were the loving kindness of God, and the gift given in the loving kindness of the one man, Jesus Christ, lavished on the whole human race. [16] There is a contrast, too, between the gift and the results of the one man’s sin. The judgment, which followed on the one man’s sin, resulted in condemnation, but God’s gracious gift, which followed on many offences, resulted in a decree of righteousness. [17] For if, by reason of the offence of the one man, death reigned through that one man, far more will those, on whom God’s loving kindness and his gift of righteousness are lavished, find life, and reign through the one man, Jesus Christ. [18] Briefly then, just as a single offence resulted for all humanity in condemnation, so, too, a single decree of righteousness resulted for all humanity in that declaration of righteousness which brings life. [19] For, as through the disobedience of the one man the whole human race was rendered sinful, so, too, through the obedience of the one, the whole human race will be rendered righteous. [20] Law was introduced in order that offences might be multiplied. But, where sins were multiplied, the loving kindness of God was lavished the more, [21] in order than, just as sin had reigned in the realm of death, so, too, might Loving-kindness reign through righteousness, and result in eternal life, through Jesus Christ, our Lord.

3.9.2 Comments

[12] Therefore, just as sin came into the world through one man, and through sin came death; so, also, death spread to all humanity, because every person has sinned. [13] Even before the time of the Law there was sin in the world; but sin cannot be charged against someone where no Law exists. [14] Yet, from Adam to Moses, death reigned even over those whose sin was not a breach of a law, as Adam’s was. And Adam foreshadows the One to come. [15] But there is a contrast between Adam’s offence and God’s gracious gift. For, if by reason of the offence of the one man the whole human race died, far more were the loving kindness of God, and the gift given in the loving kindness of the one man, Jesus Christ, lavished on the whole human race. [16] There is a contrast, too, between the gift and the results of the one man’s sin. The judgment, which followed on the one man’s sin, resulted in condemnation, but God’s gracious gift, which followed on many offences, resulted in a decree of righteousness. [17] For if, by reason of the offence of the one man, death reigned through that one man, far more will those, on whom God’s loving kindness and his gift of righteousness are lavished, find life, and reign through the one man, Jesus Christ. [18] Briefly then, just as a single offence resulted for all humanity in condemnation, so, too, a single decree of righteousness resulted for all humanity in that declaration of righteousness which brings life. [19] For, as through the disobedience of the one man the whole human race was rendered sinful, so, too, through the obedience of the one, the whole human race will be rendered righteous. [20] Law was introduced in order that offences might be multiplied. But, where sins were multiplied, the loving kindness of God was lavished the more, [21] in order than, just as sin had reigned in the realm of death, so, too, might Loving-kindness reign through righteousness, and result in eternal life, through Jesus Christ, our Lord.

a decree of righteousness] a rectifying of the situation (RKM)

righteousness] a right relationship (RKM)

decree of righteousness] right act (RKM)

declaration of righteousness] right relationship (RKM)

will be rendered righteous] will be brought into a right relationship (RKM)

righteousness] a right relationship (RKM)

The Latin version translates “εφ ω παντες ημαρτον” as “in quo omnes peccaverunt”:

In his classic formulation of the doctrine of “Original Sin” Augustine, following the Latin translation in quo omnes peccaverunt, found a reference to anticipatory sinning “in Adam” affecting all human beings prior to any personal history of sin. (Byrne 2007, 183)

δια τουτο: “Through this”, also translated “Wherefore” (AV), “Therefore” (OEB), “That’s why” (RKM), “For this reason” (Newman 2010).

Through what? What is “this” or “that” referring to? Verse 18 provides a clue:

So then, just as one person’s offence impacted on all people, leading to punishment, so also one person’s right act impacted on all people, leading to a right relationship characterized by life. (Moore 2015, 127)

If indeed Paul is referring to a single offence that impacts all people then the “for this reason” of 5.12 refers back to the “weakened condition” (5.6), “while we were still sinners” (5.8), and “while we were enemies” (5.10) of the preceding passage. If this is right then the conceptual structure of 5.12-21 goes like this:

Given we were weak and God’s enemies (5.12),

as proven by Sin’s entrance into the world and Death’s rule even before Moses’ Law was introduced (5.12-14),

though how much greater is the magnitude of generosity given through Jesus Christ than the punishment received through Adam (5.14-17),

then as Adam’s wrong act impacted all, so Jesus Christ’s right act impacts all (5.18-19)

Law slipped in to increase the wrongness but Grace increased way more! (5.20)

as Sin ruled through Death so Grace can rule through right relationship to bring Life (5.21)

[Given all this,] we can be right with God and have eternal life (5.21)

There seem to be some parallels here. Let’s take a closer look. Apologies for the Greek, though I’m not really sorry.

Greek	Literal translation	Comment
δια τουτο	Through this	A1
ωσπερ δι ενος ανθρωπου η αμαρτια εις τον κοσμον εισηλθεν	as through one human Sin into the world came in	A2
και δια της αμαρτιας ο θανατος	and through Sin Death	A3
και ουτως εις παντας ανθρωπους ο θανατος διηλθεν	and so into all humans Death came through	A4
εφ ω παντες ημαρτον	because all offended	A5
–	–	–
αχρι γαρ νομου αμαρτια ην εν κοσμω	for until Law Sin was in the world	B1
αμαρτια δε ουκ ελλογειται μη οντος νομου	but Sin [was] not counted [there] being no law	B2
–	–	–
αλλ εβασιλευσεν ο θανατος απο αδαμ μεχρι μωσεως	but Death ruled from Adam until Moses	C1
και επι τους μη αμαρτησαντας επι τω ομοιωματι της παραβασεως αδαμ	even on those not offending on the pattern of Adam’s offence	C2
ος εστιν τυπος του μελλοντος	who is [a] type of the [one] to come	C3
–	–	–
αλλ ουχ ως το παραπτωμα ουτως και το χαρισμα	but not as the wrongdoing so also the gift	D1
ει γαρ τω του ενος παραπτωματι οι πολλοι απεθανον	for if by the one wrongdoing the many died	D2
πολλω μαλλον η χαρις του θεου και η δωρεα	how much more God’s grace and the gift	D3
εν χαριτι τη του ενος ανθρωπου ιησου χριστου εις τους πολλους επερισσευσεν	by the grace of the one human Jesus Christ to the many overflowed	D4
–	–	–
και ουχ ως δι ενος αμαρτησαντος το δωρημα	and not as [that which entered] through one offending the gift	E1
το μεν γαρ κριμα εξ ενος εις κατακριμα	for on one hand from the one judgment to Judgment	E2
το δε χαρισμα εκ πολλων παραπτωματων εις δικαιωμα	on the other hand the gift from many wrongdoings to righting	E3
–	–	–
ει γαρ τω του ενος παραπτωματι ο θανατος εβασιλευσεν δια του ενος	for if by the one wrongdoing Death ruled through the one	F1
πολλω μαλλον οι την περισσειαν της χαριτος και της δωρεας της δικαιοσυνης λαμβανοντες	how much more those getting the overflow of grace and gift of rightness	F2
εν ζωη βασιλευσουσιν δια του ενος ιησου χριστου	in life will rule through the one Jesus Christ	F3
–	–	–
αρα ουν ως δι ενος παραπτωματος εις παντας ανθρωπους εις κατακριμα	So then as through one wrongdoing all humans [came] into Judgment	G1
ουτως και δι ενος δικαιωματος εις παντας ανθρωπους εις δικαιωσιν ζωης	so also through one rightdoing all humans came into righting of life	G2
–	–	–
ωσπερ γαρ δια της παρακοης του ενος ανθρωπου αμαρτωλοι κατεσταθησαν οι πολλοι	for as through the inattention of the one human the many were established [as] wrong	H1
ουτως και δια της υπακοης του ενος δικαιοι κατασταθησονται οι πολλοι	so also through the careful attention of the one the many will be established [as] right	H2
–	–	–
νομος δε παρεισηλθεν ινα πλεοναση το παραπτωμα	Law crept in so that wrongdoing increased	I1
ου δε επλεονασεν η αμαρτια υπερεπερισσευσεν η χαρις	but where Sin increased grace hyperoverflowed	I2
–	–	–
ινα ωσπερ εβασιλευσεν η αμαρτια εν τω θανατω	so that as Sin ruled in Death	J1
ουτως και η χαρις βασιλευση δια δικαιοσυνης εις ζωην αιωνιον	so also grace ruled through rightness into eternal life	J2
δια ιησου χριστου του κυριου ημων	through Jesus Christ our Ruler	J3

As an exercise, try to identify all of the parallels. Is the structure chiastic? Do you think that Paul dictated this spontaneously or is there a premeditated pattern?

Notice the use of -μα words, showing rhetorical flair.

Adam is a type of Christ, or, better, an antitype. Seven pairs of contrasts between Adam and Christ are given. (Moore 2015, 128)

The backdrop for this passage is Genesis 2, where God says to the first humans that they may eat fruit from any tree (including the tree of life) except the tree of knowing right and wrong. God warns the humans, “From any tree of the garden you may eat freely but from the tree of the knowledge of good and evil you shall not eat, for in the day that you eat from it you will surely die.”

The humans ate the wrong fruit and Death has ruled humanity ever since. Just as God’s promise to Abraham was not nullified by the Law, so the Law is a lesser thing than God’s Word warning humans not to eat the wrong fruit. Their failure to heed God’s Word broke their good relationship with God and ultimately lead to death. Eating the fruit brought awareness of right and wrong. The Law is like the tree of knowing right and wrong. It makes wrongdoing increase, either by making people culpable (worthy of blame) or by giving them ideas about what to do wrong. Death comes into the world through Sin. Both might be personifications, as might Adam (humanity) and Eve (Life). Is it coincidental that “life” appears repeatedly?

However, the emphasis of this passage is on the grace of God in Jesus Christ. Sin and death have entered the world through Adam, a type of the one to come. The Law creeps in to increase sin even more. But how much more does grace and life flood in and overflow through the one who was to come, Jesus Christ. Just as Sin ruled through Death, now Grace rules by what is right leading to unending life through Jesus Christ.

With the close of Romans 5 and his description of the part played by Jesus Christ in it, the apostle has concluded his exposition of the doctrine of rectification. Subsequently he turns to the issue of how the believer, now that he/she is in a right relationship with God, is to become righteous in reality, righteous in a real, ethical sense. (Moore 2015, 128)

3.10 Romans 6.1-14

3.10.1 English text

Dead to Sin but Alive in Christ

[Romans 6] [1] What are we to say, then? Are we to continue to sin, in order that God’s loving kindness may be multiplied? [2] Heaven forbid! We became dead to sin, and how can we go on living in it? [3] Or can it be that you do not know that all of us, who were baptized into union with Christ Jesus, in our baptism shared his death? [4] Consequently, through sharing his death in our baptism, we were buried with him; so that, just as Christ was raised from the dead by a manifestation of the Father’s power, so we also may live a new life. [5] If we have become united with him by the act symbolic of his death, surely we will also become united with him by the act symbolic of his resurrection. [6] We recognise the truth that our old self was crucified with Christ, in order that the body, the stronghold of sin, might be rendered powerless, so that we should no longer be slaves to sin. [7] For the man who has so died has been pronounced righteous and released from sin. [8] And our belief is, that, as we have shared Christ’s death, we will also share his life. [9] We know, indeed, that Christ, having once risen from the dead, will not die again. Death has power over him no longer. [10] For the death that he died was a death to sin, once and for all. But the life that he now lives, he lives for God. [11] So let it be with you – regard yourselves as dead to sin, but as living for God, through union with Christ Jesus.

[12] Therefore do not let sin reign in your mortal bodies and compel you to obey its cravings. [13] Do not offer any part of your bodies to sin, in the cause of unrighteousness, but once for all offer yourselves to God (as those who, though once dead, now have life), and devote every part of your bodies to the cause of righteousness. [14] For sin will not lord it over you. You are living under the reign, not of Law, but of love.

3.10.2 Comments

[Romans 6] [1] What are we to say, then? Are we to continue to sin, in order that God’s loving kindness may be multiplied? [2] Heaven forbid! We became dead to sin, and how can we go on living in it? [3] Or can it be that you do not know that all of us, who were baptized into union with Christ Jesus, in our baptism shared his death?

τι ουν ερωμεν: What then shall we say?

The virtual opponent speaks again, this time picking up on Paul’s statement that Law crept in so that wrongdoing increased but where Sin increased grace overflowed in a flood (5.20). The shadow says “What?! You mean we should keep sinning so that grace can increase?!”

Paul’s response is μὴ γένοιτο, which we translate “Of course not!” or, following the AV, “God forbid!” This is a rare thing in the New Testament – an optative verb. It occurs here and at Rom 3.4, 3.6, 3.31, 6.2, 6.15, 7.7, 7.13, 9.14, 11.1, and 11.11, always in response to a wrong deduction, a non sequitur, a thing that does not follow from what Paul just said. It is interesting to see that the only places where γένοιτο appears in the New Testament are Luke, Acts, Romans, 1 Corinthians, and Galatians. It seems to be a characteristic of Paul’s speech.

How is Paul going to answer this one? He starts by saying “Don’t you know?” then starts speaking about what we know as people united to Jesus Christ.

The imagery of the preceding passage was Sin and Death conquered by Grace and Life, using Genesis 2-3 as a backdrop. Now Paul switches to baptism imagery, using increase, life, sin, and death as hook words. (Another piece of rhetorical mastery.) The theme for what follows is this: “How can a person who has died as far as sin is concerned still go on living under its influence?” (Moore 2014 Rom 6.2)

What follows is a meditation on baptism.

“Don’t you know that when you were baptized into Christ you shared in his death?”

(The audience glances about perplexed.)

We don’t teach this way these days. We don’t say “Come and die” when inviting people to baptism.

[4] Consequently, through sharing his death in our baptism, we were buried with him; so that, just as Christ was raised from the dead by a manifestation of the Father’s power, so we also may live a new life. [5] If we have become united with him by the act symbolic of his death, surely we will also become united with him by the act symbolic of his resurrection. [6] We recognise the truth that our old self was crucified with Christ, in order that the body, the stronghold of sin, might be rendered powerless, so that we should no longer be slaves to sin. [7] For the man who has so died has been pronounced righteous and released from sin.

has been pronounced righteous and released] has been released (RKM)

δεδικαιωται: “has been righted”, “has been acquited”, “has been set free”

(It seems that δικαιοω and αφιημι have similar ranges of meaning.)

Paul teaches that baptism symbolizes identification with Jesus Christ. Baptism and burial are equated. We are sunk under water or buried under ground. There is a relationship between dying with Christ and being raised to life with Christ. If we have been planted together with Christ in death, we will share his resurrection knowing this: that our old human being has been crucified with Christ so that this deadly body can be rendered ineffective, no longer to enslave us to wrong. By dying we are set free from the tyranny of sin.

[8] And our belief is, that, as we have shared Christ’s death, we will also share his life. [9] We know, indeed, that Christ, having once risen from the dead, will not die again. Death has power over him no longer. [10] For the death that he died was a death to sin, once and for all. But the life that he now lives, he lives for God. [11] So let it be with you – regard yourselves as dead to sin, but as living for God, through union with Christ Jesus.

“Paul refers to the baptismal rite as a picture of the believer’s identification with Christ in his death (6:2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11), burial (6:4), and resurrection (6:4, 5, 8, 9, 10, 11).” (Moore 2015, 129)

Just as Christ died once for all (εφαπαξ), and the life he now lives is for God so count yourselves as dead to sin but alive to God. εφαπαξ is another word used only by Paul and his associates: in the New Testament it is found once each in Romans and 1 Corinthians, and three times in Hebrews.

The “regard” word in verse 11 is the same one used eleven(!) times in Romans chapter 4 with reference to the basis of Abraham’s good relationship with God: “Abraham believed God and it was counted to him as righteousness.”

The heart of this message is that if we share Christ’s death we will share his life. This is the paradox of Christianity, through dying we live. “Whoever loses his life will gain it.” (Luke 17.33)

[12] Therefore do not let sin reign in your mortal bodies and compel you to obey its cravings. [13] Do not offer any part of your bodies to sin, in the cause of unrighteousness, but once for all offer yourselves to God (as those who, though once dead, now have life), and devote every part of your bodies to the cause of righteousness. [14] For sin will not lord it over you. You are living under the reign, not of Law, but of love.

righteousness] what is right (RKM)

This special knowledge (verses 6 and 9 both talk about knowing) of Christ’s death and life has a purpose. Through union with Christ in death we have union with Christ in life. Paul now urges us to dethrone Sin by counting our bodies as dead and offering ourselves once for all to God, making ourselves instruments of right rather than wrong. As Saint Francis prayed, “Lord, make me an instrument of your peace.”

Here is Paul urging a change on his audience. What do we call this today. “Urging change” is about the best I know. This kind of activity is also called exhortation, admonition, counselling, and a typically incomprehensible piece of theological jargon: paraenesis. Whatever we call it, this kind of activity is unpopular today. No one wants to be told to reform their ways. Nevertheless, this is a common activity in the New Testament. For example, Hebrews alternates between sections of teaching and exhortation.

So how do we put across this message today, the message that union with Christ in death is essential for union with Christ in resurrection life. How do we urge a modern audience to once for all count themselves as dead in order to live life only for God?

3.10.3 Summary

3.11 Romans 6.15-23

3.11.1 English text

Slaves of Righteousness

[15] What follows, then? Are we to sin because we are living under the reign of love and not of Law? Heaven forbid! [16] Surely you know that, when you offer yourselves as servants, to obey anyone, you are the servants of the person whom you obey, whether the service be a service sin which leads to death, or a service Duty which leads to righteousness. [17] God be thanked that, though you were once servants of sin, yet you learned to give hearty obedience to that form of doctrine under which you were placed. [18] Set free from the control of sin, you became servants to righteousness. [19] I can but speak as people do because of the weakness of your earthly nature. Once you offered every part of your bodies to the service of impurity, and of wickedness, which leads to further wickedness. Now, in the same way, offer them to the service of righteousness, which leads to holiness. [20] While you were still servants of sin, you were free as regards righteousness. [21] But what were the fruits that you reaped from those things of which you are now ashamed? For the end of such things is death. [22] But now that you have been set free from the control of sin, and have become servants to God, the fruit that you reap is an ever increasing holiness, and the end eternal life. [23] The wages of sin are death, but the gift of God is eternal life, through union with Christ Jesus, our Lord.

3.11.2 Comments

6.15

τι ουν αμαρτησομεν οτι ουκ εσμεν υπο νομον αλλ υπο χαριν μη γενοιτο

What follows, then? Are we to sin because we are living under the reign of love and not of Law? Heaven forbid!

Another challenge from Paul’s shadow boxer Paul has just said in verse 14, “For sin will not lord it over you. You are living under the reign, not of Law, but of love.” Paul has the kind of mental facility that develops when what you say is controversial. If you are trying to say a new thing and it is not accepted by your peers then you start to anticipate challenges to every key statement that you make and think of answers to those challenges. That is, you get into the habit of stating potential challenges to your essential arguments then answering those challenges before your adversary has a chance to say them. Another possibility is that Paul actually had been challenged with these questions and he is giving the Romans answers for such questions. That would make Romans a resource book for apologetics (provided you are living in the Graeco-Roman world in the first century). If this theory is right then every time we see Paul ask such a question it means he has just stated an important point in his understanding of the Gospel. This pattern occurs repeatedly in Romans. It is often introduced by the Greek τι ουν: what then?

So, shall we do wrong because we are not under the Law but under grace? Definitely not!

Some manuscripts have the subjunctive αμαρτησωμεν instead of future αμαρτησομεν here, the difference being between long and short “o” sounds. The subjunctive gives “should we do wrong” instead of “shall we do wrong”. This is typical of the magnitude of semantic effect caused by textual variation in the Greek New Testament – it doesn’t make much difference to the meaning at all.

6.16

ουκ οιδατε οτι ω παριστανετε εαυτους δουλους εις υπακοην δουλοι εστε ω υπακουετε ητοι αμαρτιας εις θανατον η υπακοης εις δικαιοσυνην

Surely you know that, when you offer yourselves as servants, to obey anyone, you are the servants of the person whom you obey, whether the service be a service sin which leads to death, or a service Duty which leads to righteousness.

righteousness] what is right (RKM)

The pattern here is the same the beginning of chapter six:

• What then, shall we do X?

• Definitely not!

• Don’t you know that Y?

The corresponding arguments from Paul’s virtual opponent are:

1. Shall we continue to do wrong so that grace may overflow? (6.1)

2. Shall we keep doing wrong because we are not under the Law but under grace? (6.15)

Paul’s answer to the first challenge was to say “Don’t you know that as many as were baptized into Christ were baptized into his death?” He then went on to illustrate the point using the picture of identity with Christ not only in his death but also in his resurrected life. His answer to the second challenge is “Don’t you know that you are slaves to the one you obey?” He says there are two kinds of slavery:

1. Slaves of Sin, [leading] to death

2. Slaves of Obedience, [leading] to right (δικαιοσυνη)

This parallelism is interesting. Sin, possibly personified, has been one of the players in the preceding passages. If we take “Sin” as a person, who is it? And if we take “Obedience” as a person, who would that be? Continuing with the parallelism, what would you expect to be the antithesis of death? Does that give us a clue to what Paul means by δικαιοσυνη here?

In Romans 1.5, Paul uses the phrase “το/for obedience of faith” (εισ υπακοην πιστεωσ). Here we have “of obedience to/for rightness” (υπακοησ εισ δικαιοσυνην). Right standing (δικαιοσυνη), obedience (υπακοη) to God, and a relationship of trust (πιστισ) all seem to be associated in Paul’s thinking. These three seem to depend on one another; if one suffers the others do too.

6.17

χαρις δε τω θεω οτι ητε δουλοι της αμαρτιας υπηκουσατε δε εκ καρδιας εις ον παρεδοθητε τυπον διδαχης

God be thanked that, though you were once servants of sin, yet you learned to give hearty obedience to that form of doctrine under which you were placed.

This could be translated, “Thanks to God, that you (pl) [who] were being Sin’s slaves, obeyed from the heart the type of teaching to which you (pl) were handed over.” “You” is plural here, meaning “you all”, as is so often the case in the New Testament. (We often think of “you” as singular.)

What is this “type of teaching”? RKM translates “program of teaching”, which fits well.

Who did the handing over? The verb is in the passive voice, meaning that the Romans were handed over to the teaching by someone.

6.18

ελευθερωθεντες δε απο της αμαρτιας εδουλωθητε τη δικαιοσυνη

having been set free from sin, you became slaves to what is right (RKM)

Again, the “setting free” and “becoming slaves” are passives. That is, the Romans did not do this; it was done to them. They have been set free from Sin and made slaves to Right. There has been a change of ownership. The slaves don’t have a say in it. Ownership of the slave has been transferred from one master (Sin) to another (Right).

6.19a

ανθρωπινον λεγω δια την ασθενειαν της σαρκος υμων

I can but speak as people do because of the weakness of your earthly nature.

“I speak human through the weakness of your flesh.” Or, “I am using everyday language because of your human limitations.” Compare Rom 3.5 where Paul says “I speak as a man” (κατα ανθρωπον λεγω). Today we might say, “I have to use common illustrations so you can understand.”

6.19b

ωσπερ γαρ παρεστησατε τα μελη υμων δουλα τη ακαθαρσια και τη ανομια εις την ανομιαν ουτως νυν παραστησατε τα μελη υμων δουλα τη δικαιοσυνη εις αγιασμον

“Once you offered every part of your bodies to the service of impurity, and of wickedness, which leads to further wickedness. Now, in the same way, offer them to the service of righteousness, which leads to holiness.”

What “parts” (μελη) are these?

How does offering your faculties to impurity and law-breaking lead to law-breaking? How does doing wrong lead to doing wrong? What examples do you find. I find that if I do one thing wrong I lose the resolve not to do other things wrong. Having a big failing makes me less concerned with lesser failings. So being impure and ignoring the moral code in some respect produces unrestrained behaviour.

Paul uses the “offer” verb (παριστημι) twice. Another translation is “dedicate”. The first time it is past tense and the second time imperative.

Just as you dedicated your faculties as slaves to impurity and lawlessness, [leading] to lawlessness

so now dedicate your faculties as slaves to right, [leading] to holiness

6.20

οτε γαρ δουλοι ητε της αμαρτιας ελευθεροι ητε τη δικαιοσυνη

While you were still servants of sin, you were free as regards righteousness.

righteousness] what is right (RKM)

The illustration of two masters continues. While serving Sin you are free with respect to Right. Being free to Right might seem OK, but where does it end?

6.21

τινα ουν καρπον ειχετε τοτε εφ οις νυν επαισχυνεσθε το γαρ τελος εκεινων θανατος

But what were the fruits that you reaped from those things of which you are now ashamed? For the end of such things is death.

6.22

But now that you have been set free from the control of sin, and have become servants to God, the fruit that you reap is an ever increasing holiness, and the end eternal life. [23] The wages of sin are death, but the gift of God is eternal life, through union with Christ Jesus, our Lord.

3.11.3 Summary

Death is the wage paid if you are slaves to Sin.

Eternal life is the free gift given if you are slaves to God.

This life is realised through identification with our Master, Jesus, the Christ.

3.12 Romans 7.1-6

3.12.1 English text

An Analogy from Marriage

[Romans 7] [1] Surely, friends, you know (for I am speaking to people who know what Law means) that Law has power over a person only as long as they lives. [2] For example, by law a married woman is bound to her husband while he is living; but, if her husband dies, she is set free from the law that bound her to him. [3] If, then, during her husband’s lifetime, she unites herself to another man, she will be called an adulteress; but, if her husband dies, the law has no further hold on her, nor, if she unites herself to another man, is she an adulteress. [4] And so with you, my friends; as far as the Law was concerned, you underwent death in the crucified body of the Christ, so that you might be united to another, to him who was raised from the dead, in order that our lives might bear fruit for God. [5] When we were living merely earthly lives, our sinful passions, aroused by the Law, were active in every part of our bodies, with the result that our lives bore fruit for death. [6] But now we are set free from the Law, because we are dead to that which once kept us under restraint; and so we serve under new, spiritual conditions, and not under old, written regulations.

3.12.2 Comments

[Romans 7] [1] Surely, friends, you know (for I am speaking to people who know what Law means) that Law has power over a person only as long as he lives. [2] For example, by law a married woman is bound to her husband while he is living; but, if her husband dies, she is set free from the law that bound her to him. [3] If, then, during her husband’s lifetime, she unites herself to another man, she will be called an adulteress; but, if her husband dies, the law has no further hold on her, nor, if she unites herself to another man, is she an adulteress. [4] And so with you, my friends; as far as the Law was concerned, you underwent death in the crucified body of the Christ, so that you might be united to another, to him who was raised from the dead, in order that our lives might bear fruit for God. [5] When we were living merely earthly lives, our sinful passions, aroused by the Law, were active in every part of our bodies, with the result that our lives bore fruit for death. [6] But now we are set free from the Law, because we are dead to that which once kept us under restraint; and so we serve under new, spiritual conditions, and not under old, written regulations.

The marriage analogy is used to show that death releases a person from the Law’s requirements. A person who has died with Christ is therefore released from the Law to be united to Christ, which union will produce fruit for God.

The image of marriage to Christ occurs in other parts of the New Testament. Christians are seen as Christ’s bride. This might be somewhat confusing for males but contains a deep spiritual truth. Spiritual union with Christ is the source of life. That union at once brings the power of life, and at the same time sets us free from the Law, which has been keeping us down.

The image also talks about fruit. The fruit of marriage is children. Here, Paul might be talking about spiritual children. The fruit of a believer’s union with Christ is spiritual children, and union with Christ is the essential thing without which the marriage will produce nothing.

7.5

This verse says that the Law aroused wrong desires. Paul seems to cast the Law in a poor light. Law is being used by Sin to produce bad outcomes.

7.6

νυνι δε κατηργηθημεν απο του νομου αποθανοντος εν ω κατειχομεθα ωστε δουλευειν ημας εν καινοτητι πνευματος και ου παλαιοτητι γραμματος

But now we have been released from the Law having died to what was holding us down so we serve in the Spirit’s newness and not the Letter’s oldness.

Again the verb is passive. Is it a coincidence that there are so many passives in this stretch of text? Should we draw a theological conclusion from the passives? What do you think?

3.12.3 Summary

But now we have been released from the Law, having died to what was holding us down, so we slave in the Spirit’s newness and not the Letter’s oldness.

3.13 Romans 7.7-25

3.13.1 English text

The Problem of Indwelling Sin

[7] What are we to say, then? That Law and sin are the same thing? Heaven forbid! On the contrary, I should not have learned what sin is, had not it been for Law. If the Law did not say

You must not covet,

I should not know what it is to covet. [8] But sin took advantage of the Commandment to arouse in me every form of covetousness, for where there is no consciousness of Law sin shows no sign of life. [9] There was a time when I myself, unconscious of Law, was alive; but when the Commandment was brought home to me, sin sprang into life, while I died! [10] The Commandment that should have meant life I found to result in death! [11] sin took advantage of the Commandment to deceive me, and used it to bring about my death. [12] And so the Law is holy, and each Commandment is also holy, and just, and good. [13] Did, then, a thing, which in itself was good, involve death in my case? Heaven forbid! It was sin that involved death; so that, by its use of what I regarded as good to bring about my death, its true nature might appear; and in this way the Commandment showed how intensely sinful sin is.

[14] We know that the Law is spiritual, but I am earthly – sold into slavery to sin. [15] I do not understand my own actions. For I am so far from habitually doing what I want to do, that I find myself doing the thing that I hate. [16] But when I do what I want not to do, I am admitting that the Law is right. [17] This being so, the action is no longer my own, but is done by the sin which is within me. [18] I know that there is nothing good in me – I mean in my earthly nature. For, although it is easy for me to want to do right, to act rightly is not easy. [19] I fail to do the good thing that I want to do, but the bad thing that I want not to do – that I habitually do. [20] But, when I do the thing that I want not to do, the action is no longer my own, but is done by the sin which is within me. [21] This, then, is the law that I find – when I want to do right, wrong presents itself! [22] At heart I delight in the Law of God; [23] but throughout my body I see a different law, one which is in conflict with the law accepted by my reason, and which endeavours to make me a prisoner to that law of sin which exists throughout my body. [24] Miserable man that I am! Who will deliver me from the body that is bringing me to this death? [25] Thank God, there is deliverance through Jesus Christ, our Lord! Well then, for myself, with my reason I serve the Law of God, but with my earthly nature the Law of sin.

3.13.2 Comments

7.7

τι ουν ερουμεν ο νομος αμαρτια μη γενοιτο αλλα την αμαρτιαν ουκ εγνων ει μη δια νομου την τε γαρ επιθυμιαν ουκ ηδειν ει μη ο νομος ελεγεν ουκ επιθυμησεις

[7] What are we to say, then? That Law and sin are the same thing? Heaven forbid! On the contrary, I should not have learned what sin is, had not it been for Law. If the Law did not say

You must not covet,

I should not know what it is to covet.

The shadowy antagonist challenges Paul: “What?! You mean that the Law is Sin?” (Again, “what then” (τι ουν) is used to introduce the diatribe opponent’s question.) Looking back at 7.5 it is not hard to see why the antagonist thinks Paul is equating the Law with Sin. However, Paul replies “Definitely not!” and proceeds to explain what he does mean (i.e. follows the same rhetorical pattern as repeated before).

According to a plain reading, Paul now starts talking about himself, saying “I wouldn’t have known what Sin is if not for the Law.” A lot of people have wondered who is talking here. Is it Paul? Is it a Christian? Is it a Jew? Is it a Roman? Is it Everyman?

Could it be Paul?

The example that Paul chooses is an interesting one. It is the last of the ten commandments, the one that says not to covet. What’s wrong with wanting what someone else has got anyway?

Paul says somewhere that as far as the Law is concerned, he was blameless. But to covet is a sin with no obvious outward evidence. Resulting theological dilemmas aside, Paul may well have been assailed by this particular sin. Wasn’t he a Pharisee of Pharisee’s, born of the tribe of Benjamin? Shouldn’t he be highly respected? Shouldn’t he have a house? Shouldn’t he have a wife? But no, he had none of these things. The Pharisees hated him. He made tents to support himself. He didn’t have a Christian wife like Peter.

My own experience suggests that covetousness is a late sin, a regretful sin, one that springs up by surprise. I wasn’t a bigot but now I am. I used to be generous but now I am mean. I never used to care about money, fame, or houses but now all I think about is where will we live, will any one acknowledge my life’s work, will I live out my final years poor, with all the pain that promises?

What a deadly sin this is! How it eats away at the soul! How it worships false gods, and thereby makes us break the first commandment, the most important one, to have no other gods before the One True God.

[8] But sin took advantage of the Commandment to arouse in me every form of covetousness, for where there is no consciousness of Law sin shows no sign of life. [9] There was a time when I myself, unconscious of Law, was alive; but when the Commandment was brought home to me, sin sprang into life, while I died! [10] The Commandment that should have meant life I found to result in death! [11] sin took advantage of the Commandment to deceive me, and used it to bring about my death.

If Paul is talking about himself then the sin that killed him was covetousness. Whether or not this is autobiographical, Paul says that Sin uses the Law to kill people. This has parallels with the account of Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden:

• The snake took advantage of the commandment to arouse covetousness (the fruit looked good to eat).

• There was a time when Adam and Eve, unconscious of the commandment.

• The commandment was meant for life but resulted in death.

• The snake took advantage of the commandment to deceive Adam and Eve, and used it to bring about their death.

[12] And so the Law is holy, and each Commandment is also holy, and just, and good.

just] right (RKM)

Sin is the problem, not the Law.

[13] Did, then, a thing, which in itself was good, involve death in my case? Heaven forbid! It was sin that involved death; so that, by its use of what I regarded as good to bring about my death, its true nature might appear; and in this way the Commandment showed how intensely sinful sin is.

Use of a good commandment to kill exposes the detestable nature of Sin. The Law is holy, right, and good, but Sin is exceedingly unholy, wrong, and bad. (Just as grace overflows in a flood, sin is excessively bad.)

[14] We know that the Law is spiritual, but I am earthly – sold into slavery to sin. [15] I do not understand my own actions. For I am so far from habitually doing what I want to do, that I find myself doing the thing that I hate.

The verbs change tense at this point. What goes before uses the past tense but now there is a change to present.

Is Paul talking about himself? It’s a great description! Could he have written this if he didn’t know exactly what it was like to struggle against sin? What do you think? One thing I know – this is an uncomfortably accurate description of my own experience.

Rather than speaking about himself, perhaps Paul is instead talking about the experience common to those in Adam, those already described as slaves to Sin. All of us have been in that state by virtue of our common humanity.

[16] But when I do what I want not to do, I am admitting that the Law is right. [17] This being so, the action is no longer my own, but is done by the sin which is within me. [18] I know that there is nothing good in me – I mean in my earthly nature. For, although it is easy for me to want to do right, to act rightly is not easy. [19] I fail to do the good thing that I want to do, but the bad thing that I want not to do – that I habitually do. [20] But, when I do the thing that I want not to do, the action is no longer my own, but is done by the sin which is within me.

How can someone who sees the goodness of the Law go against it? This seems like strange behaviour. But the poor slave has no choice. Therefore it is not his doing but his master’s.

[21] This, then, is the law that I find – when I want to do right, wrong presents itself! [22] At heart I delight in the Law of God; [23] but throughout my body I see a different law, one which is in conflict with the law accepted by my reason, and which endeavours to make me a prisoner to that law of sin which exists throughout my body.

Jesus told his disciples that the spirit is willing but the flesh is weak. Ovid said “I see the better way and approve it, but I follow the worse”. Paul uses “law” (νομοσ) in two ways here: “Law” and “principle”. He also speaks of “war” and “prisoner”. Prisoners of war often ended up as slaves in the Graeco-Roman world. (Byrne 2007, 228)

[24] Miserable man that I am! Who will deliver me from the body that is bringing me to this death? [25] Thank God, there is deliverance through Jesus Christ, our Lord! Well then, for myself, with my reason I serve the Law of God, but with my earthly nature the Law of sin.

Finally the wretched “I” cries out for deliverance. Who can rescue the slave from his captivity?

Thank God there is someone who can rescue us: Jesus Christ, our Master.

Chapter seven ends with a final summary of the dilemma: I acknowledge that God’s Law is right but I am nevertheless a slave of Sin.

3.13.3 Summary

3.14 Romans 8.1-17

3.14.1 English text

Life in the Spirit

[Romans 8] [1] There is, therefore, now no condemnation for those who are in union with Christ Jesus; [2] for through your union with Christ Jesus, the Law of the life-giving Spirit has set you free from the Law of sin and death. [3] What Law could not do, in so far as our earthly nature weakened its action, God did, by sending his own Son, with a nature resembling our sinful nature, to atone for sin. He condemned sin in that earthly nature, [4] so that the requirements of the Law might be satisfied in us who live now in obedience, not to our earthly nature, but to the Spirit. [5] They who follow their earthly nature are earthly-minded, while they who follow the Spirit are spiritually minded. [6] To be earthly-minded means death, to be spiritually minded means life and peace; [7] because to be earthly-minded is to be an enemy to God, for such a mind does not submit to the Law of God, nor indeed can it do so. [8] They who are earthly cannot please God. [9] You, however, are not earthly but spiritual, since the Spirit of God lives within you. Unless a person has the Spirit of Christ, they do not belong to Christ; [10] but, if Christ is within you, then, though the body is dead as a consequence of sin, the spirit is life as a consequence of righteousness. [11] And, if the Spirit of him who raised Jesus from the dead lives within you, he who raised Christ Jesus from the dead will give life even to your mortal bodies, through his Spirit living within you.

[12] So then, friends, we owe nothing to our earthly nature, that we should live in obedience to it. [13] If you live in obedience to your earthly nature, you will inevitably die; but if, by the power of the Spirit, you put an end to the evil habits of the body, you will live. [14] All who are guided by the Spirit of God are sons of God. [15] For you did not receive the spirit of a slave, to fill you once more with fear, but the spirit of a son which leads us to cry “Abba, Our Father.” [16] The Spirit himself unites with our spirits in bearing witness to our being God’s children, [17] and if children, then heirs – heirs of God, and joint heirs with Christ, since we share Christ’s sufferings in order that we may also share his glory.

3.14.2 Comments

[Romans 8] [1] There is, therefore, now no condemnation for those who are in union with Christ Jesus; [2] for through your union with Christ Jesus, the Law of the life-giving Spirit has set you free from the Law of sin and death.

Here is the high point of Paul’s Gospel. This is the climax of all that has gone before. Paul has built up to this point using a series of arguments that conform to the following pattern:

• preamble: leads up to a key point
• thesis: the key point
• proof: an argument to persuade hearers that the thesis is valid
• summary: a restatement of the thesis in the light of the proof.

The proof can include one or more antitheses, perhaps expressed as what an opponent might misinterpret the key point to say.

You could use this pattern in your own attempts to persuade. It’s a good pattern to master and will help you write assignments. However, you might want to include a synthesis step if any antitheses presented have any merit.

Here are some key points in Romans that lead toward the principal point at 8.1-2

Location	Thesis
1.16-17	The Good News is that God accepts all who have faith in God (i.e. all who trust, believe, rely on God).
1.18	The Bad News (i.e. the context for the Good News) is that all stand condemned.
3.21	The way to a right relationship with God through trusting Jesus Christ has come to light. (This way is separate from the Law.)
4.1-3	The basis of Abraham’s right relationship with God is faith, not Law.
4.25	Jesus Christ was handed over [to die] because of our offences; he was raised so that we might be brought into a right relationship.
5.20-21	The Law crept in to multiply offences; however, where sin multiplies, God’s kindness (i.e. grace) hyperovermultiplies. Just as Sin reigned by Death, so God’s kindness can rule by right relationship leading to everlasting life through our Master Jesus Christ.
6.19-23	The flesh is weak. (“Flesh” here refers to the element of human nature that is prone to offend against God.) When you were Sin’s slaves you were free with respect to what is right but produced fruit that shames you, ultimately leading to death. Now you have been freed from Sin and made God’s slaves the fruit you have directs toward consecration, ultimately leading to everlasting life. The wage Sin pays is death; the gift God gives is everlasting life through our Master Jesus Christ.
7.1	The Law masters a human [only] as long as he or she lives.
7.5	When we were in the flesh offensive desires aroused by the Law were acting in our faculties to produce deadly fruit.
7.6	You were put to death with respect to the Law through Christ’s body to bring you to another, the One raised from the dead, to bear fruit for God.

Here are some of the antitheses:

Location	Antithesis
6.1	Do we keep offending to make God’s kindness increase?
6.15	Do we keep offending because we are under God’s kindness and not under the Law?
7.7	Do we say that the Law is Sin?
7.13	Do we say that what is good brought me to death?

One of the functions of key points is to set the scene for coming arguments. Verses 7.5 and 6 work this way, setting the scene for 7.7-25 and 8.1-13, respectively. (Byrne 2007, 213)

8.1-2 is at the centre of Paul’s entire apology. Could Romans have a structure that makes 8.1-2 the chiastic midpoint, the place of greatest honour? (Don’t try it. That way lies madness.)

Union with Christ negates the power that leads all humanity to condemnation and death through their offences; union with Christ is the basis of a new Law, the Law of the life-giving Spirit. Richard Moore says, “it is the principle of the Holy Spirit that overcomes the principle of sin and death.” (Moore 2015, 133)

How do we express this in contemporary terms? What are its implications for today’s world?

[3] What Law could not do, in so far as our earthly nature weakened its action, God did, by sending his own Son, with a nature resembling our sinful nature, to atone for sin. He condemned sin in that earthly nature, [4] so that the requirements of the Law might be satisfied in us who live now in obedience, not to our earthly nature, but to the Spirit. [5] They who follow their earthly nature are earthly-minded, while they who follow the Spirit are spiritually minded. [6] To be earthly-minded means death, to be spiritually minded means life and peace; [7] because to be earthly-minded is to be an enemy to God, for such a mind does not submit to the Law of God, nor indeed can it do so. [8] They who are earthly cannot please God.

the requirements of the Law] what the Law quite rightly and properly requires (RKM)

The Law cannot give us a good relationship with God but God’s atonement through Jesus Christ can. The basis of right relationship is something God did, not us. We were helpless until God did what we could not do.

“God did”: We have to supply “did”.

“with a nature resembling our sinful nature”: This could be misconstrued as docetic: “in the likeness of human flesh” (εν ομοιωματι σαρκος αμαρτιας). However, “likeness” here is not that Jesus seemed to be human but rather that he was human in all respects save one, namely the propensity to offend God.

“He condemned sin in that earthly nature”: God condemned sin (or Sin) through Jesus Christ. One implication is that there is no longer a defence for offences against God because no one has been able to live without offending God. Jesus Christ was human yet did not offend, so demolishes that defence. This might seem to make things worse for the rest of humanity, who now have no defence whatsoever. All we can do now is accept that our death sentence is right. However, God has done more. He has condemned Sin, namely the master we were powerless to resist. Sin is therefore taken out of the picture – someone who is condemned is as good as dead.

At the same time as condemning the evil master humanity has been powerless to resist, God exercised mercy, and grants life to those who cast themselves upon His mercy.

Those who walk according to the Spirit and not the flesh can have fulfilled (passive subjunctive) in them the requirements of the Law. The subjunctive expresses potential. The passive implies that this is something done to us, not by us. The life of obedience through the Spirit is described as a walk, reminiscent of something God said to Abraham: “walk before me and be perfect” (Gen 17.1).

How do we walk this walk? What is the secret of being in the Spirit and not in the flesh?

“earthly-minded … spiritually minded”: or, “have their minds set on the flesh … have their minds set on the Spirit”. You are what you think.

“to be earthly-minded is to be an enemy to God”: This is the core of humanity’s problem. Our natural attitude to God is not merely negligent but positively hostile.

[9] You, however, are not earthly but spiritual, since the Spirit of God lives within you. Unless a person has the Spirit of Christ, they do not belong to Christ; [10] but, if Christ is within you, then, though the body is dead as a consequence of sin, the spirit is life as a consequence of righteousness. [11] And, if the Spirit of him who raised Jesus from the dead lives within you, he who raised Christ Jesus from the dead will give life even to your mortal bodies, through his Spirit living within you.

righteousness] a right relationship (RKM)

“since the Spirit of God lives within you”: or “if God’s Spirit resides in you”. The way to walk in the Spirit instead of the flesh is through having the Spirit of Christ in us. But there is an “if”.

How do we get God’s Spirit?

How do we keep God’s Spirit?

Can we lose God’s Spirit?

Walking the walk of the Spirit is through having Christ’s Spirit. Anyone without Christ’s Spirit does not belong to Christ.

“though the body is dead as a consequence of sin”: or, “the body is mortal because of sin”

“will give life even to your mortal bodies”: RKM (Moore 2015, 134) translates this as follows: “If the Spirit of the one who raised Jesus from among the dead resides in you, he who raised Christ from among the dead will bring your mortal bodies to life through his Spirit, who resides in you.” All of the yous are plural. The Spirit’s inhabitation is what “will also make alive our mortal bodies”. This seems to be talking about the future resurrection of those in Christ. Could it have more immediate implications for our mortal bodies as well? What do you think?

[12] So then, friends, we owe nothing to our earthly nature, that we should live in obedience to it. [13] If you live in obedience to your earthly nature, you will inevitably die; but if, by the power of the Spirit, you put an end to the evil habits of the body, you will live. [14] All who are guided by the Spirit of God are sons of God. [15] For you did not receive the spirit of a slave, to fill you once more with fear, but the spirit of a son which leads us to cry “Abba, Our Father.” [16] The Spirit himself unites with our spirits in bearing witness to our being God’s children, [17] and if children, then heirs – heirs of God, and joint heirs with Christ, since we share Christ’s sufferings in order that we may also share his glory.

“we owe nothing to our earthly nature, that we should live in obedience to it”: or, “we are not in debt to the flesh to live according to the flesh”. This is consistent with those who are in Christ being set free from Sin as slave master. If so, then the flesh and Sin are equated here, as in 7.17-18. Seeing that our ownership has been transferred from Sin to Christ, we are no longer obliged to do Sin’s bidding.

What are the implications of this point? Is it possible to live without offence against God?

“you will inevitably die”: or, “you are about to die”. This too has plural “you”. Greek μελλετε before the infinitive means “going to die”, “about to die”, “intend to die”, “must die”, or “destined to die”. [newman_greek-english_2010 μελλω]

“if, by the power of the Spirit, you put an end to the evil habits of the body, you will live.”: or, “if by the Spirit you (pl) put to death the deeds of the body you will live”. Here is how to avoid the death those who live according to the flesh are about to die. This is done through the Spirit but involves our action as well.

“All who are guided by the Spirit of God are sons of God”: or, “those being led by the Spirit are God’s children”. Paul suddenly starts talking about inheritance. God’s children are heirs of God. Paul says “brothers” at verse 12 and “sons” here. The end of Romans clearly indicates that females as well as males are being addressed as those in Christ. It is therefore appropriate to substitute gender-neutral language whenever you encounter “brother”, “son”, “he”, “him”, etc.

“you did not receive the spirit of a slave”: Here is a completely unexpected bonus of being transferred from the ownership of Sin to the realm of Christ. Not only are those in Christ freed from fear (of what?), the Spirit also corroborates to their spirits that they are God’s children. (The Greek here actually has “children”.)

“we share Christ’s sufferings in order that we may also share his glory”: Why has Paul started to talk about suffering? One might consider “putting the deeds of the body to death” (verse 13) to be suffering. However, there is another place where Paul mentions something like suffering, namely at the beginning of chapter 5. Being identified with Christ brings trouble and suffering. Human nature wars against God. A logical outcome is that those in the flesh will make war on those in Christ. Nevertheless, those in Christ live in hope. The themes of suffering and hope occupy the remaining part of chapter 8.

3.14.3 Summary

Through your union with Christ Jesus, the Law of the life-giving Spirit has set you free from the Law of sin and death.

3.15 Romans 8.18-39

3.15.1 English text

The Glory That is to be

[18] I do not count the sufferings of our present life worthy of mention when compared with the glory that is to be revealed and bestowed on us. [19] All Nature awaits with eager expectation the appearing of the sons of God. [20] For Nature was made subject to imperfection – not by its own choice, but owing to him who made it so – [21] yet not without the hope that some day Nature, also, will be set free from enslavement to decay, and will attain to the freedom which will mark the glory of the children of God. [22] We know, indeed, that all Nature alike has been groaning in the pains of labour to this very hour. [23] And not Nature only; but we ourselves also, though we have already a first gift of the Spirit – we ourselves are inwardly groaning, while we eagerly await our full adoption as sons – the redemption of our bodies. [24] By our hope we were saved. But the thing hoped for is no longer an object of hope when it is before our eyes; for who hopes for what is before his eyes? [25] But when we hope for what is not before our eyes, then we wait for it with patience.

[26] So, also, the Spirit supports us in our weakness. We do not even know how to pray as we should; but the Spirit himself pleads for us in sighs that can find no utterance. [27] Yet he who searches all our hearts knows what the Spirit’s meaning is, because the pleadings of the Spirit for Christ’s people are in accordance with his will. [28] But we do know that God causes all things to work together for the good of those who love him – those who have received the call in accordance with his purpose. [29] For those whom God chose from the first he also destined from the first to be transformed into likeness to his Son, so that his Son might be the eldest among many brothers and sisters. [30] And those whom God destined for this he also called; and those whom he called he also pronounced righteous; and those whom he pronounced righteous he also brought to glory.

God’s Love

[31] What are we to say, then, in the light of all this? If God is on our side, who can there be against us? [32] God did not withhold his own Son, but gave him up on behalf of us all; will he not, then, with him, freely give us all things? [33] Who will bring a charge against any of God’s people? He who pronounces them righteous is God! [34] Who is there to condemn them? He who died for us is Christ Jesus! – or, rather, it was he who was raised from the dead, and who is now at God’s right hand and is even pleading on our behalf! [35] Who is there to separate us from the love of the Christ? Will trouble, or difficulty, or persecution, or hunger, or nakedness, or danger, or the sword? [36] Scripture says –

For your sake we are being killed all the day long,
We are regarded as sheep to be slaughtered.

[37] Yet amid all these things we more than conquer through him who loved us! [38] For I am persuaded that neither death, nor life, nor angels, nor archangels, nor the present, nor the future, nor any powers, [39] nor height, nor depth, nor any other created thing, will be able to separate us from the love of God revealed in Christ Jesus, our Lord!

3.15.2 Comments

[18] I do not count the sufferings of our present life worthy of mention when compared with the glory that is to be revealed and bestowed on us. [19] All Nature awaits with eager expectation the appearing of the sons of God. [20] For Nature was made subject to imperfection – not by its own choice, but owing to him who made it so – [21] yet not without the hope that some day Nature, also, will be set free from enslavement to decay, and will attain to the freedom which will mark the glory of the children of God. [22] We know, indeed, that all Nature alike has been groaning in the pains of labour to this very hour.

What’s all this then?! What an enigma! What a text for today.

Paul continues to talk about suffering. What might be the occasion? Paul himself had already experienced plenty of trouble by the time he composed Romans. At Acts 14.22 Paul and Barnabas say “Through many troubles we must enter the kingdom of God”, just after a mob had “stoned Paul and dragged him out of the city, supposing him to be dead.” Nevertheless, in Paul’s mind this investment of suffering is small compared to the glory about to be revealed in us.

Paul returns to Creation (κτισισ), as he has done a number of times before (e.g. Rom 1.20-23). Does he mean the human world? Is it creation apart from those in Christ? Is it the spirit world? Byrne opts for the non-human, non-angelic part of creation and says (Byrne 2007, 256):

The difficulty concerning the personification of “creation” disappears once we appreciate that a poetic, mythic view, stemming from apocalyptic motifs is involved. In Wis 16:24 and 19:6 “creation” likewise appears in personified form, transforming itself in favor of the “[children] of God” (= the Israelites).

(There seem to be a number of references to the Book of Wisdom in Romans.)

Byrne goes on to say (Byrne 2007, 256):

along with this understanding of “creation,” Paul presupposes a Jewish tradition which saw the non-human created world as intimately bound up with the fate of human beings. “Creation” progresses when the human race progresses; it suffers a fall when human beings fall. Both share, in brief, a “common fate.”

Creation has been subjected to futility. This might refer to God cursing the earth because of Adam, or even the meaninglessness of Ecclesiastes.

Who is the one who subjected creation to decay? Most would say God, though there is a long-standing view (held e.g. by Chrysostom) that Adam is the one who subjected creation to decay.

All of creation groans in labour pains. In a stunning twist, Paul says that creation will be set free from its enslavement to decay when God’s children are revealed. Is this a future thing or can it happen now?

[23] And not Nature only; but we ourselves also, though we have already a first gift of the Spirit – we ourselves are inwardly groaning, while we eagerly await our full adoption as sons – the redemption of our bodies. [24] By our hope we were saved. But the thing hoped for is no longer an object of hope when it is before our eyes; for who hopes for what is before his eyes? [25] But when we hope for what is not before our eyes, then we wait for it with patience.

Paul continues to talk about suffering and hope. Now he shifts from groaning nature to groaning believers, those who suffer while they eagerly wait to be made coheirs with Christ. But hope whose object is seen is not hope at all. As it is we have to wait patiently. (John’s Apocalypse also talks about the need for patience on the part of God’s people. Had John read Romans?)

[26] So, also, the Spirit supports us in our weakness. We do not even know how to pray as we should; but the Spirit himself pleads for us in sighs that can find no utterance. [27] Yet he who searches all our hearts knows what the Spirit’s meaning is, because the pleadings of the Spirit for Christ’s people are in accordance with his will.

First Creation groans, then believers groan, and now the Spirit groans. The Spirit supports us in our weakness – something already said earlier in chapter eight. It is through the Spirit that we prevail. God’s Spirit groans. This implies suffering, doesn’t it?

“he who searches all our hearts”: This is God. Many places in the Bible use this description (1 Sam 16.7, 1 Kings 8.39, Psalms 7, 17, 26, 44, 139). (Byrne 2007, 271)

God’s spirit intercedes for the saints. He is our advocate, our representative before God’s bar. “Christian attribution of this role to the Spirit probably flows from the close association of the Spirit with the risen Christ, whom Paul pictures exercising a similar function in v 34.” (Byrne 2007, 271) (John also testifies that the Spirit (John 14.16) and the risen Christ (1 John 2.1) are our advocates.)

[28] But we do know that God causes all things to work together for the good of those who love him – those who have received the call in accordance with his purpose. [29] For those whom God chose from the first he also destined from the first to be transformed into likeness to his Son, so that his Son might be the eldest among many brothers and sisters. [30] And those whom God destined for this he also called; and those whom he called he also pronounced righteous; and those whom he pronounced righteous he also brought to glory.

pronounced righteous] brought into a right relationship (RKM) (2x)

“we do know that God causes all things to work together” The subject of this sentence could be “the Spirit”" or “all things” instead of “God”. Richard Moore takes “all things” as subject: (Moore 2015, 135)

We know that all things work together for good to those who love God, who are called in accordance with his purpose…

“For those whom God chose …”: Here is another instance of sorites, like at Rom 5.3-4:

• whom he foreknew, also he predestined…
• whom he predestined, these he also called
• whom he called, these he also righted
• whom he righted, these he also glorified.

The verbal ladder gives a strong sense of sure progress toward the goal, the purpose (προθεσισ) for which God has called his people. That goal is glory. Surprisingly, all of these verbs are in the past tense, implying that God’s children are already glorified, or at least have the guarantee of future glory already manifest.

Now let’s talk about predestination. On the other hand, let’s not.

God ordains that his chosen people will be glorified. Apart from God’s initiative they would stand condemned of failing to glorify God and falling short of his glory. There is nothing good in us. Apart from God’s Spirit we can do nothing of spiritual merit. Could this truth taken together with a timeless perspective (which may be how things are) be equivalent to foreknowledge that results in glorification by way of predestination and rectification?

[31] What are we to say, then, in the light of all this? If God is on our side, who can there be against us? [32] God did not withhold his own Son, but gave him up on behalf of us all; will he not, then, with him, freely give us all things? [33] Who will bring a charge against any of God’s people? He who pronounces them righteous is God! [34] Who is there to condemn them? He who died for us is Christ Jesus! – or, rather, it was he who was raised from the dead, and who is now at God’s right hand and is even pleading on our behalf! [35] Who is there to separate us from the love of the Christ? Will trouble, or difficulty, or persecution, or hunger, or nakedness, or danger, or the sword? [36] Scripture says –

For your sake we are being killed all the day long,
We are regarded as sheep to be slaughtered.

[37] Yet amid all these things we more than conquer through him who loved us! [38] For I am persuaded that neither death, nor life, nor angels, nor archangels, nor the present, nor the future, nor any powers, [39] nor height, nor depth, nor any other created thing, will be able to separate us from the love of God revealed in Christ Jesus, our Lord!

pronounces them righteous] brings people into a right relationship (RKM)

Paul now reaches the conclusion of his presentaion of the Gospel:

If God is for us, who can be against us?

If he didn’t spare his Son, how can he fail to give everything else?

Who will accuse when it is Jesus Christ who is our advocate?

What can get between us and Christ’s love?

• trouble? distress?
• persecution? famine?
• nakedness? peril? sword?

Scripture says that for your sake we are being killed every day, counted as sheep for slaughter.

Yet we overcome (υπερνικωμεν) through the one who loved us.

Paul the persuader has been persuaded that neither:

• death nor life
• angels nor rulers
• things present, things to come, nor powers
• height, depth, nor any other creation

can separate us from the love (αγαπη) of God in our Master, Jesus Christ.

So ends Paul’s Gospel.

In the coming chapters Paul switches to a topic that distresses him, something that breaks his heart. It is tied up with God’s foreordained purpose. It involves predestination. It is his own people’s rejection of the message just presented.

3.15.3 Summary

Nothing can separate God’s people from his love. Suffering is a present inconvenience that is about to be swamped with glory.

3.16 Romans 9.1-18

3.16.1 English text

God’s Election of Israel

[Romans 9] [1] I am speaking the truth as one in union with Christ; it is no lie; and my conscience, enlightened by the Holy Spirit, [2] bears me out when I say that there is a great weight of sorrow on me and that my heart is never free from pain. [3] I could wish that I were myself accursed and severed from the Christ, for the sake of my people – my own flesh and blood. [4] For they are Israelites, and theirs are the adoption as sons, the visible presence, the Covenants, the revealed Law, the Temple worship, and the Promises. [5] They are descended from the Patriarchs; and, as far as his human nature was concerned, from them came the Christ – he who is supreme over all things, God for ever blessed. Amen.

[6] Not that God’s Word has failed. For it is not all who are descended from Israel who are true Israelites; [7] nor, because they are Abraham’s descendants, are they all his children; but –

It is Isaac’s children who will be called your descendants.

[8] This means that it is not the children born in the course of nature who are God’s children, but it is the children born in fulfilment of the Promise who are to be regarded as Abraham’s descendants. [9] For these words are the words of a promise –

About this time I will come, and Sarah will have a son.

[10] Nor is that all. There is also the case of Rebecca, when she was about to bear children to our ancestor Isaac. [11] For in order that the purpose of God, working through selection, might not fail – a selection depending, not on obedience, but on his call – Rebecca was told, before her children were born and before they had done anything either right or wrong, [12] that

the elder would be a servant to the younger.

[13] The words of scripture are –

I loved Jacob,
but I hated Esau.

[14] What are we to say, then? Is God guilty of injustice? Heaven forbid! [15] For his words to Moses are -

I will take pity on whom I take pity,
and be merciful to whom I am merciful.

[16] So, then, all depends, not on human wishes or human efforts, but on God’s mercy. [17] In scripture, again, it is said to Pharaoh -

It was for this purpose that I raised you to the throne, to show my power by my dealings with you, and to make my name known throughout the world.

[18] So, then, where God wills, he takes pity, and where he wills, he hardens the heart.

3.16.2 Comments

[Romans 9] [1] I am speaking the truth as one in union with Christ; it is no lie; and my conscience, enlightened by the Holy Spirit, [2] bears me out when I say that there is a great weight of sorrow on me and that my heart is never free from pain. [3] I could wish that I were myself accursed and severed from the Christ, for the sake of my people – my own flesh and blood.

Paul now turns his attention to the Israelites, and spends the next three chapters explaining what could be perceived as a flaw in his message. According to Paul’s Gospel, there is no difference between Jews and non-Jews. All have offended against God, and the way for this problem to be set right is the same for all – through belief in the God who is Father of Jesus Christ. However, there would seem to be an elephant in the room, namely the failure of the Israelites to embrace this belief. When Romans was written it was plain to see that the religious leadership of Israel was violently opposed to the message that Jesus is Israel’s Messiah. (“Christ” and “Messiah” mean the same thing.) How could it be that the very nation God chose as his special possession was rejecting his way of putting things right?

In the overall structure of Romans, chapters 9-11 might be seen as a deviation. However, the question of Israel occupies a central place in Paul’s thought. The amount of space and scriptural quotation he now devotes to this question indicates how important he thinks it is.

Richard Moore sees chapters 9-11 as a development of themes anticipated in Paul’s statement at the end of chapter 3 (Moore 2015, 137):

Having completed his exposition of rectification (3:21-5:21) and his explanations and exhortations on how the Christian becomes righteous in a moral sense (Rom 6-8), Paul now takes up some of the other corollaries mentioned in Rom 3:21-31. In Romans 9-11 he has a particular interest in the relationship between Jews and non-Jews in the overall purposes of God.

The thought of Israel breaks Paul’s heart. 9.1-2 sounds like an oath formula, by which Paul emphasizes that what he is about to say is the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth: “There is an immense sorrow and unremitting anguish in my heart for I could even wish that I myself might be accursed, cut off from Christ, on behalf of my brothers and sisters, who, biologically speaking, are my relatives.” (Moore 2015, 137) This is like when Moses asked God to take his name out of the Book of Life rather than destroy Israel after the golden calf episode (Exod 32.30-34). Paul is saying in the strongest possible terms that he loves his own people and would give anything for them to embrace the Good News of Jesus Christ. (Maybe people had accused Paul of not caring about Israel, of abandoning his own people, of being a traitor to Israel’s cultural heritage.)

[4] For they are Israelites, and theirs are the adoption as sons, the visible presence, the Covenants, the revealed Law, the Temple worship, and the Promises. [5] They are descended from the Patriarchs; and, as far as his human nature was concerned, from them came the Christ – he who is supreme over all things, God for ever blessed. Amen.

Paul refers to his people as Israelites, a term genetic descendants of Jacob preferred over “Jews” for describing themselves. “Jews” tended to be used by outsiders. Paul consistently uses “Israelites” throughout chapters 9-11. (Byrne 2007, 287)

Here is Paul’s list of the advantages of the Israelites (cf. Rom 3.1-2):

• adoption (υἱοθεσία)
• glory (δοξα)
• covenants (διαθηκαι)
• giving of the Law (νομοθεσια)
• service (λατρεια)
• promises (επαγγελιαι)
• Patriarchs (οι πατερεs)
• Christ (χριστοs)

The adoption is as sons. The glory is of God’s presence. The covenants are multiple (given to Abraham, the Israelites, and David). The Law is a Good Thing, and Israel is privileged to have received it. Service refers to the Israelite form of worship that included the sacrificial system. Promises are those to the Patriarchs – promises of descendants and land. The Patriarchs Abraham, Jacob, and Isaac are Israelites. Most importantly, Christ himself is an Israelite.

“from them came the Christ – he who is supreme over all things, God for ever blessed” The final part can be taken two ways. It could be taken to say that Christ is “God for ever blessed”. According to Byrne (Byrne 2007, 288), this would be “somewhat at odds with other Christological statements in Paul, who accords Christ divine status but always in subordination to God the Father (cf. Phil 2:11; 1 Cor 8:6)”. The other alternative is that the final part is a doxology to the blessed God of Israel who has bestowed these privileges.

[6] Not that God’s Word has failed. For it is not all who are descended from Israel who are true Israelites; [7] nor, because they are Abraham’s descendants, are they all his children; but –

It is Isaac’s children who will be called your descendants.

Here is a hint of the question Paul wants to address. Has God’s word failed? Have the promises fallen flat? Paul’s answer is that the promises are not all-inclusive.

[8] This means that it is not the children born in the course of nature who are God’s children, but it is the children born in fulfilment of the Promise who are to be regarded as Abraham’s descendants. [9] For these words are the words of a promise –

About this time I will come, and Sarah will have a son.

The contrast is between Isaac and Ishmael. One is born through a divine promise, the other through natural human relations. Paul is again using the story of Abraham to illustrate his point, as at chapter 4. Paul uses the same “counted as” (λογιζεται) word here and in chapter 4. What counts is being children by promise, not by natural descent.

[10] Nor is that all. There is also the case of Rebecca, when she was about to bear children to our ancestor Isaac. [11] For in order that the purpose of God, working through selection, might not fail – a selection depending, not on obedience, but on his call – Rebecca was told, before her children were born and before they had done anything either right or wrong, [12] that

the elder would be a servant to the younger.

[13] The words of scripture are –

I loved Jacob,
but I hated Esau.

Richard Moore writes (Moore 2015, 138):

[Paul] points out that mere physical descent from Israel (i.e. Jacob) does not automatically confer membership in [God’s nation of] Israel (9:6-9). It is rather a case of divine promise (9:8-9), of divine purpose (9:11) and of divine calling (9:12). It does not rest on what a person has done (9:12), but on divine preference (9:13).

And Byrne writes (Byrne 2007, 295):

Paul simply takes the oracle [i.e. Rom 9.13 = Mal 1.2-3] as a confirmation of the preference for Jacob expressed in Gen 25:23. “Hating” in this context simply reflects a Semitic way of expressing a choice made for one party over another. There are no grounds for erecting a theory of “double predestination” on the slender scriptural base provided by Paul’s quotation of this text. He is simply pointing to this text as an indication of the divine intent to proceed in a sovereignly free, “elective” way, which human qualities or claims cannot touch or determine; nothing is said about the ultimate fate of Esau.

So, what do you think? Is Paul talking about double predestination? Does it seem fair to you that Esau was hated while Isaac was loved?

[14] What are we to say, then? Is God guilty of injustice? Heaven forbid! [15] For his words to Moses are -

I will take pity on whom I take pity,
and be merciful to whom I am merciful.

[16] So, then, all depends, not on human wishes or human efforts, but on God’s mercy.

As at a number of earlier places (3.5, 6.1, 7.7) “What then sall we say?” (τι ουν ερουμεν) introduces the adversary’s objection: “Is this not injustice on God’s part?” As also at the other places, Paul’s reply is “Definitely not!” (μη γενοιτο) The quotation is of Exod 33.19 in the Septuagint where Moses asks to be shown God’s glory. God makes his goodness pass before Moses and proclaims his name. In Exodus 3 God had said “I am who I am.” Now he says “I will be gracious to whom I will be gracious, and will show compassion on whom I will show compassion.”

God is free to have mercy on whoever he wants. No one deserves his mercy.

[17] In scripture, again, it is said to Pharaoh -

It was for this purpose that I raised you to the throne, to show my power by my dealings with you, and to make my name known throughout the world.

Interestingly, scripture speaks to Pharaoh.

[18] So, then, where God wills, he takes pity, and where he wills, he hardens the heart.

Does this mean that none of us has true freedom of will?

3.16.3 Summary

Paul is grieved that his fellow Israelites have not all embraced the Good News concerning Jesus Christ. What could be the reason for this? Paul reminds us from scripture that God’s promises do not always apply to everyone. Paul also reminds us that God is free to have mercy on whoever he likes. Just as he can have pity, he can, for his own good purposes, harden a king’s heart.

3.17 Romans 9.19-33

3.17.1 English text

God’s Wrath and Mercy

[19] Perhaps you will say to me – “How can anyone still be blamed? For who withstands his purpose?” [20] I might rather ask “Who are you who are arguing with God?” Does a thing which a person has moulded say to the person who has moulded it “Why did you make me like this?” [21] Has not the potter absolute power over their clay, so that out of the same lump they make one thing for better, and another for common, use? [22] And what if God, intending to reveal his displeasure and make his power known, bore most patiently with the objects of his displeasure, though they were fit only to be destroyed, [23] so as to make known his surpassing glory in dealing with the objects of his mercy, whom he prepared beforehand for glory, [24] and whom he called – even us – Not only from among the Jews but from among the Gentiles also! [25] This, indeed, is what he says in the book of Hosea -

Those who were not my people, I will call my people,
and those who were unloved I will love.
[26] And in the place where it was said to them – ‘You are not my people’,
they will be called sons of the living God.

[27] And Isaiah cries aloud over Israel -

Though the sons of Israel are like the sand of the sea in number, only a remnant of them will escape! [28] For the Lord will execute his sentence on the world, fully and without delay.

[29] It is as Isaiah foretold -

Had not the Lord of Hosts spared some few of our people to us,
we should have become like Sodom
and been made to resemble Gomorrah.

Israel and the Gospel

[30] What are we to say, then? Why, that Gentiles, who were not in search of righteousness, secured it – a righteousness which was the result of faith; [31] while Israel, which was in search of a Law which would ensure righteousness, failed to discover one. [32] And why? Because they looked to obedience, and not to faith, to secure it. They stumbled over the stumbling-block. [33] As scripture says -

See, I place a stumbling-block in Zion – a rock which will prove a hindrance;
and he who believes in him will have no cause for shame.

3.17.2 Comments

[19] Perhaps you will say to me – “How can anyone still be blamed? For who withstands his purpose?” [20] I might rather ask “Who are you who are arguing with God?” Does a thing which a person has moulded say to the person who has moulded it “Why did you make me like this?” [21] Has not the potter absolute power over their clay, so that out of the same lump they make one thing for better, and another for common, use?

Is this a fair question? This is exactly what you would expect a modern to say if you said that God has mercy on some and hardens others. Yet this is not a question from a godless modern. It is instead a question from an adversary who knows scripture and might have in mind the book of Job or perhaps Wisdom 12.12.

How would you answer this question today? Things are perhaps worse because you can’t appeal to scripture as an authority. Is there any way to make God’s freedom to choose palatable to your average punter? Maybe we are better off to pray that no one brings up predestination?

Paul’s answer is to say, “Who are you to question God?” The allegory of the potter fashioning clay is found in Jeremiah 18.1-10 and Isaiah 45.9. F. F. Bruce writes (Bruce 1985, 179), “Paul has been misunderstood and unjustly criticized through failure to recognize that it is the God-defying rebel and not the bewildered seeker after God whose mouth he so peremptorily shuts. God, in his, grace does abide his people’s question, but he will not be cross-examined at the judgement bar of a hard and impenitent heart.”

[22] And what if God, intending to reveal his displeasure and make his power known, bore most patiently with the objects of his displeasure, though they were fit only to be destroyed, [23] so as to make known his surpassing glory in dealing with the objects of his mercy, whom he prepared beforehand for glory, [24] and whom he called – even us – Not only from among the Jews but from among the Gentiles also!

If the context for this argument is Israel’s rejection of the Gospel, then the “objects of his displeasure” would seem to be those of Israel who in Paul’s time did not accept Jesus of Nazareth as the root of Jesse, the Messiah. It is easy to forget that Paul’s emphasis is on God’s mercy, not his displeasure. God’s grace is an overflowing flood even if his plan to abundantly bless can take place against the backdrop of a potential curse.

[25] This, indeed, is what he says in the book of Hosea -

Those who were not my people, I will call my people,
and those who were unloved I will love.
[26] And in the place where it was said to them – ‘You are not my people’,
they will be called sons of the living God.

Verse 25 is a loose quotation of Hosea 2.23 but an exact quotation of Hosea 1.10 in the Septuagint. A free quotation of Hosea 2.23 occurs at 1 Peter 2.10 as well.

Source	Text
Hosea 2.23 (LXX)	ελεησω την ουκηλεημενην και ερω τω ουλαωμου λαος μου ει συ
Rom 9.25	καλεσω τον ου λαον μου λαον μου και την ουκ ηγαπημενην ηγαπημενην
1 Peter 2.10	οι ποτε ου λαος νυν δε λαος θεου οι ουκ ηλεημενοι νυν δε ελεηθεντες
Hosea 1.10 (LXX)	εν τω τοπω ου ερρεθη αυτοις ου λαος μου υμεις εκει κληθησονται υιοι θεου ζωντος
Rom 9.26	εν τω τοπω ου ερρηθη αυτοις ου λαος μου υμεις εκει κληθησονται υιοι θεου ζωντος

[27] And Isaiah cries aloud over Israel -

Though the sons of Israel are like the sand of the sea in number, only a remnant of them will escape! [28] For the Lord will execute his sentence on the world, fully and without delay.

[29] It is as Isaiah foretold -

Had not the Lord of Hosts spared some few of our people to us,
we should have become like Sodom
and been made to resemble Gomorrah.

God is now calling “My People” those who were formerly not his people. At the same time the sons of Israel are in danger of a catastrophe on the scale of Sodom and Gomorrah. In fulfillment of Isaiah’s prophecy (10.21), though their number is great only a part will remain.

In accord with another part of Isaiah (1.9), if not for God’s mercy even those few would be gone.

[30] What are we to say, then? Why, that Gentiles, who were not in search of righteousness, secured it – a righteousness which was the result of faith; [31] while Israel, which was in search of a Law which would ensure righteousness, failed to discover one.

righteousness, it] a right relationship (RKM) (4x)

Paul now states his point. The nations who were not pursuing right standing have attained it – a right standing from faith. Yet Israel, pursuing a law of right standing did not come first in law.

[32] And why? Because they looked to obedience, and not to faith, to secure it. They stumbled over the stumbling-block. [33] As scripture says -

See, I place a stumbling-block in Zion – a rock which will prove a hindrance;
and he who believes in him will have no cause for shame.

Paul uses a mash up of Isaiah 28.16 and 8.14 to show that Israel’s error has been to seek right standing through works, not trust. They have tripped over a stone, a living stone, a stone which saves those who believe in him but dashes those who stumble over him.

3.17.3 Summary

Who can withstand God’s purpose? Who are we to question God? God is the potter and we are the clay. God hardens some in order to have mercy on many. Christ is the rock. For those who believe he is the foundation of God’s people; for those who do not believe he is a stumbling block which trips them up. Those who trip over Christ stumble because they seek to become right with God through the Law; those who stand on Christ are made right through belief.

3.18 Romans 10.1-21

3.18.1 English text

[Romans 10] [1] My friends, my heart’s desire and prayer to God for my people is for their salvation. [2] I can testify that they are zealous for the honour of God; but they are not guided by true insight, [3] for, in their ignorance of the divine righteousness, and in their eagerness to set up a righteousness of their own, they refused to accept with submission the divine righteousness. [4] For Christ has brought Law to an end, so that righteousness may be obtained by everyone who believes in him.

Salvation for All

[5] For Moses writes that, as for the righteousness which results from Law,

those who practice it will find life through it.

[6] But the righteousness which results from faith finds expression in these words:

Do not say to yourself ‘Who will go up into heaven?’

(which means to bring Christ down)

[7] or ‘Who will go down into the depths below?’

(which means to bring Christ up from the dead). [8] No, but what does it say?

The message is near you,
on your lips and in your heart

(which means “The Message of faith” which we proclaim). [9] For, if with your lips you acknowledge the truth of the message that JESUS IS LORD, and believe in your heart that God raised him from the dead, you will be saved. [10] For with their hearts people believe and so attain to righteousness, while with their lips they make their Profession of faith and so find salvation. [11] As the passage of scripture says -

No one who believes in him will have any cause for shame.

[12] For no distinction is made between the Jew and the Greek, for all have the same Lord, and he is bountiful to all who invoke him. [13] For

everyone who invokes the name of the Lord will be saved.

[14] But how, it may be asked, are they to invoke one in whom they have not learned to believe? And how are they to believe in one whose words they have not heard? And how are they to hear his words unless someone proclaims him? [15] And how is anyone to proclaim him unless they are sent as his messengers? As scripture says -

How beautiful are the feet of those who bring good news!

[16] Still, it may be said, everyone did not give heed to the good news. No, for Isaiah asks -

Lord, who has believed our teaching?

[17] And so we gather, faith is a result of teaching, and the teaching comes in the message of Christ. [18] But I ask “Is it possible that people have never heard?” No, indeed, for -

Their voices spread through all the earth,
and their message to the ends of the world.

[19] But again I ask “Did not the people of Israel understand?” First there is Moses, who says -

I, the Lord, will stir you to rivalry with a nation which is no nation;
Against an undiscerning nation I will arouse your anger.

[20] And Isaiah says boldly -

I was found by those who were not seeking me;
I made myself known to those who were not inquiring of me.

[21] But of the people of Israel he says -

All day long I have stretched out my hands to a people who disobey and contradict.

3.18.2 Comments

[Romans 10] [1] My friends, my heart’s desire and prayer to God for my people is for their salvation. [2] I can testify that they are zealous for the honour of God; but they are not guided by true insight, [3] for, in their ignorance of the divine righteousness, and in their eagerness to set up a righteousness of their own, they refused to accept with submission the divine righteousness. [4] For Christ has brought Law to an end, so that righteousness may be obtained by everyone who believes in him.

righteousness] a right relationship (RKM) (4x)

At the beginning of chapter ten Paul talks about his heart, as he did at the beginning of chapter nine. He really wants his people to gain the true insight they need to be set right with God. They need to see the One Paul has seen, the risen Christ. Their error is to seek a righteousness of their own when the only righteousness that counts is the one received as a gift through belief in Christ. Christ is the end (τελοσ) of the law. Here’s some of the semantic domain covered by τελοσ:

• end
• conclusion
• outcome
• result
• goal
• aim
• completion
• fulfilment.

This is what Christ is to the Law. He is the thing that the Law aimed to make Israel conform to. But the only way to be conformed to Christ is to have his Spirit alive in us. His Spirit is received through faith, not human efforts to conform to a Christ-shaped pattern.

[5] For Moses writes that, as for the righteousness which results from Law,

those who practice it will find life through it.

righteousness] a right relationship (RKM)

This quotation is from Lev 18.1-5:

[1] Then the Lord spoke to Moses, saying, [2] “Speak to the sons of Israel and say to them, ‘I am the Lord your God. [3] ’You shall not do what is done in the land of Egypt where you lived, nor are you to do what is done in the land of Canaan where I am bringing you; you shall not walk in their statutes. [4] ’You are to perform My judgments and keep My statutes, to live in accord with them; I am the Lord your God. [5] ’So you shall keep My statutes and My judgments, by which a man may live if he does them; I am the Lord.’”

Interestingly Luke uses the same part of Leviticus (“do this and you will live”) in the lead up to the parable of the good Samaritan at Luke 10.25-29 where it is associated with a question about eternal life and a lawyer’s wish to show himself as being in the right (δικαιουν):

[25] And a lawyer stood up and put Him to the test, saying, “Teacher, what shall I do to inherit eternal life?” [26] And He said to him, “What is written in the Law? How does it read to you?” [27] And he answered, “You shall love the Lord your God with all your heart, and with all your soul, and with all your strength, and with all your mind; and your neighbor as yourself.” [28] And He said to him, “You have answered correctly; do this and you will live.” [29] But wishing to justify himself, he said to Jesus, “And who is my neighbor?”

Paul quotes Leviticus for the purpose of saying that [only] those who do what the Law says will live. (What would your Hebrew Bible teacher do to you if you used Lev 18.5 this way?) However, as Paul has already said, no one has this kind of right standing, not one. (Although as F. F. Bruce writes, “There is one exception, according to Karl Barth: ‘the man’ who has perfectly kept the law of God is Christ.” (Bruce 1985, 191))

[6] But the righteousness which results from faith finds expression in these words:

Do not say to yourself ‘Who will go up into heaven?’

(which means to bring Christ down)

[7] or ‘Who will go down into the depths below?’

(which means to bring Christ up from the dead). [8] No, but what does it say?

The message is near you,
on your lips and in your heart

(which means “The Message of faith” which we proclaim).

righteousness] a right relationship (RKM)

Paul now contrasts the right standing that comes from Law with right standing from faith. These three verses have a similar structure:

1. statement of question (optional)
2. scripture
3. “that is, …”

“Who will go up into heaven?” and “Who will go down into the depths below?” are from Deuteronomy 30.11-14:

[11] “For this commandment which I command you today is not too difficult for you, nor is it out of reach. [12] “It is not in heaven, that you should say, ‘Who will go up to heaven for us to get it for us and make us hear it, that we may observe it?’ [13] “Nor is it beyond the sea, that you should say, ‘Who will cross the sea for us to get it for us and make us hear it, that we may observe it?’ [14] “But the word is very near you, in your mouth and in your heart, that you may observe it.

In the Hebrew Bible, Lev 18.5 and these quotes from Deut 30 indicate that the Law can be kept. Yet Paul uses these texts in a different way, interpreting them in the light of Christ. (This is something like the pesher style found in scriptural commentaries from Qumran (Bruce 1985, 192).) Paul leaves out the parts of Deuteronomy that say “that you may observe it” and replaces them with statements about Christ. (What would your Hebrew Bible teacher do to you if you did that?)

Paul adapts these texts to his own purpose, which is to prove that the only way to right standing before God is through faith centred on Jesus Christ. The texts he uses here might well be used as scriptural proofs that a person can do what the Law requires, and live by it. Paul’s interpretation replaces “that you [or we] may observe it” with:

1. that is to bring Christ down
2. that is to bring Christ up
3. that is the message (ρημα) of faith that we proclaim

These three concern the message that Jesus came from heaven, died and went to the underworld (cf. 1 Peter 3.19), then went back to heaven.

[9] For, if with your lips you acknowledge the truth of the message that JESUS IS LORD, and believe in your heart that God raised him from the dead, you will be saved. [10] For with their hearts people believe and so attain to righteousness, while with their lips they make their Profession of faith and so find salvation. [11] As the passage of scripture says -

No one who believes in him will have any cause for shame.

righteousness] a right relationship (RKM)

Here in the middle of the three chapters on Paul’s heartbreak concerning Israel is a statement that everyone who believes the message concerning Jesus Christ will obtain right standing and all who say he is Lord (κυριοσ) will be saved. Having right standing and being saved are parallel and may therefore be one thing – the everlasting life we seek. It is worth remembering that in the middle of Romans 9-11, the part where some of Paul’s most difficult statements are found, is a statement that all who call on the name of Christ will be saved.

The saying is accompanied by believing, and the believing is accompanied by saying. One lacks without the other. How do we proclaim the Good News today? How do we believe the Good News today? Back then, saying and believing that Jesus is Lord could get you into trouble. What we translate as “Lord” is κυριοσ. There were rivals for the honour of being called “Lord” when Paul wrote this. One was the Hebrew God, who is called κυριοσ in the Septuagint (i.e. the “Seventy” (LXX), namely the Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible); another was Caesar; yet another was your master if you were a slave. Saying and believing that “Jesus is Lord” would get you into trouble with the political leadership of both Rome and Jerusalem. It was a capital offence.

Paul’s proof that all who call upon Jesus Christ will be saved is Isaiah 28.16 (already quoted at 9.33).

[12] For no distinction is made between the Jew and the Greek, for all have the same Lord, and he is bountiful to all who invoke him. [13] For

everyone who invokes the name of the Lord will be saved.

Paul has already said in his thesis at 3.22 that “there is no distinction” between Jew and Greek (the precedent at 3.9). At 3.22 there is “no distinction” between Jew and Greek because “all have sinned and fall short of the glory of God”, and are “brought into a right relationship as a gift by His grace through the redemption which is in Christ Jesus”. Here at 10.12-13 there is no distinction because “the same one is Lord (κυριοσ) of all, abounding in riches for all who call on Him”.

The proof text this time is Joel 2.32. Peter uses the same text on the day of Pentecost (Acts 2.16-32).

This message is universal. The importance of this part of Romans chapter 10 is underlined by its location in the middle of Paul’s treatment of the question of Israel and its reference to Paul’s thesis statement at 3.22 (that there is “no distinction” between Jews and Greeks with respect to God’s way of setting people right).

[14] But how, it may be asked, are they to invoke one in whom they have not learned to believe? And how are they to believe in one whose words they have not heard? And how are they to hear his words unless someone proclaims him? [15] And how is anyone to proclaim him unless they are sent as his messengers? As scripture says -

How beautiful are the feet of those who bring good news!

Paul now switches from the universal availability of salvation to the importance of proclamation. Given God’s generous invitation to all who would believe, how is this wonderful message going to get out?

Another sorite (as at 5.3-4 and 8.29-30) begins with “calling upon” and ends with “being sent out”

Greek	English
πως ουν επικαλεσονται εις ον ουκ επιστευσαν	How then will they call on Him in whom they have not believed?
πως δε πιστευσουσιν ου ουκ ηκουσαν	How will they believe in Him whom they have not heard?
πως δε ακουσουσιν χωρις κηρυσσοντος	How will they hear without one proclaiming
πως δε κηρυξουσιν εαν μη αποσταλωσιν	How will they proclaim without being sent out?

The proof text in this case is Isaiah 52.7:

How beautiful on the mountains are the feet of him who brings good news,

Who announces peace and brings good news of happiness,

Who announces salvation and says to Zion, “Your God reigns!”

The “one bringing good news” in the LXX of Isaiah 52.7 is based on the same Greek word translated as “Good News” or “Gospel” in the New Testament (ευαγγελιζω).

Believing the Good News depends on hearing, hearing depends on proclamation, and proclamation depends on someone being sent. Every step can be frustrated, but every step can also be facilitated. How can we play a part in God’s Gospel enterprise today?

[16] Still, it may be said, everyone did not give heed to the good news. No, for Isaiah asks -

Lord, who has believed our teaching?

Now we are back to those who have not believed the Good News. The quotation is Isaiah 53.1.

It turns out that John also quotes Isaiah 53.1. In his Gospel the text is used at John 12.38 to explain the people of Jerusalem’s unbelief.

[17] And so we gather, faith is a result of teaching, and the teaching comes in the message of Christ. [18] But I ask “Is it possible that people have never heard?” No, indeed, for -

Their voices spread through all the earth,
and their message to the ends of the world.

Faith comes through hearing, and hearing comes through the message (ρηματος) of Christ. (A lot of witnesses have “message of God” instead“). Who are”the people" here? Verse 19 indicates they are the people of Israel. Paul quotes Psalm 19.4 (LXX). The original context is of the heavens declaring the glory of the Lord. Paul applies the text to the Good News of Jesus Christ. (What would your Hebrew Bible do to you if you did this?)

[19] But again I ask “Did not the people of Israel understand?” First there is Moses, who says -

I, the Lord, will stir you to rivalry with a nation which is no nation;
Against an undiscerning nation I will arouse your anger.

[20] And Isaiah says boldly -

I was found by those who were not seeking me;
I made myself known to those who were not inquiring of me.

[21] But of the people of Israel he says -

All day long I have stretched out my hands to a people who disobey and contradict.

Could it be that even though Paul’s people heard the message they did not understand it? The quotation is from the Song of Moses at Deut 32.21. Paul takes Isaiah 65.1 to apply to the non-Jews who were now believing the Good News; he takes Isaiah 65.2 to apply to Israel, as in the original context.

3.19 Romans 11.1-12

3.19.1 English text

The Remnant of Israel

[Romans 11] [1] I ask, then, “Has God rejected his people?” Heaven forbid! For I myself am an Israelite, a descendant of Abraham, of the tribe of Benjamin. [2] God has not rejected his people, whom he chose from the first. Have you forgotten the words of scripture in the story of Elijah – how he appeals to God against Israel?

[3] Lord, they have killed your prophets, they have pulled down your altars, and I only am left; and now they are eager to take my life.

[4] But what was the divine response?

I have kept for myself seven thousand who have never bowed the knee to Baal.

[5] And so in our own time, too, there is to be found a remnant of our nation selected by God’s grace. [6] But if by grace, then it is not as a result of obedience. Otherwise grace would cease to be grace [7] What follows from this? Why, that Israel as a nation failed to secure what it was seeking, while those whom God selected did secure it. [8] The rest grew callous; as scripture says -

God has given them a deadness of mind –
eyes that are not to see
and ears that are not to hear –
and it is so to this very day.

[9] David, too, says -

May their feasts prove a snare and a trap to them –
a hindrance and a retribution;
[10] may their eyes be darkened, so that they cannot see;
and do you always make their backs to bend.

The Salvation of the Gentiles

[11] I ask then – “Was their stumbling to result in their fall?” Heaven forbid! On the contrary, through their falling away salvation has reached the Gentiles, to stir the rivalry of Israel. [12] And, if their falling away has enriched the world, and their failure has enriched the Gentiles, how much more will result from their full restoration!

3.19.2 Comments

[Romans 11] [1] I ask, then, “Has God rejected his people?” Heaven forbid! For I myself am an Israelite, a descendant of Abraham, of the tribe of Benjamin. [2] God has not rejected his people, whom he chose from the first.

Does Israel’s rejection of God’s Good News mean that God has rejected Israel. Definitely not. Paul presents himself as an example of an Israelite who God has chosen, not rejected.

Have you forgotten the words of scripture in the story of Elijah – how he appeals to God against Israel?

[3] Lord, they have killed your prophets, they have pulled down your altars, and I only am left; and now they are eager to take my life.

[4] But what was the divine response?

I have kept for myself seven thousand who have never bowed the knee to Baal.

Even in Elijah’s time God kept a part of the people of Israel for himself.

[5] And so in our own time, too, there is to be found a remnant of our nation selected by God’s grace

And so it is in Paul’s time.

[6] But if by grace, then it is not as a result of obedience. Otherwise grace would cease to be grace.

It is God’s grace that is the determiner, not obedience to the Law. Paul’s recurrent theme surfaces again: “we are redeemed by grace, not works of the Law.”

[7] What follows from this? Why, that Israel as a nation failed to secure what it was seeking, while those whom God selected did secure it. [8] The rest grew callous; as scripture says -

God has given them a deadness of mind –
eyes that are not to see
and ears that are not to hear –
and it is so to this very day.

[9] David, too, says -

May their feasts prove a snare and a trap to them –
a hindrance and a retribution;
[10] may their eyes be darkened, so that they cannot see;
and do you always make their backs to bend.

The quotations are from the Law (Deut 29:4), the Prophets (“spirit of stupor” Isa 29:10), and the Writings (Ps 69:22-23).

What do we do with this? Is an audience today going to accept it? How should we handle it?

[11] I ask then – “Was their stumbling to result in their fall?” Heaven forbid! On the contrary, through their falling away salvation has reached the Gentiles, to stir the rivalry of Israel. [12] And, if their falling away has enriched the world, and their failure has enriched the Gentiles, how much more will result from their full restoration!

Israel’s stumbling is not their fall. Instead, their failure has achieved a spectacular success – a massive expansion of God’s redeeming work. And even better things are yet to come.

3.20 Romans 11.13-36

3.20.1 English text

[13] But I am speaking to you who were Gentiles. [14] Being myself an apostle to the Gentiles, I exalt my office, in the hope that I may stir my countrymen to rivalry, and so save some of them. [15] For, if their being cast aside has meant the reconciliation of the world, what will their reception mean, but life from the dead? [16] If the first handful of dough is holy, so is the whole mass; and if the root is holy, so are the branches.

[17] Some, however, of the branches were broken off, and you, who were only a wild olive, were grafted in among them, and came to share with them the root which is the source of the richness of the cultivated olive. [18] Yet do not exult over the other branches. But, if you do exult over them, remember that you do not support the root, but that the root supports you. [19] But branches, you will say, were broken off, so that I might be grafted in. [20] True; it was because of their want of faith that they were broken off, and it is because of your faith that you are standing. Do not think too highly of yourself, but beware. [21] For, if God did not spare the natural branches, neither will he spare you. [22] See, then, both the goodness and the severity of God – his severity towards those who fell, and his goodness towards you, provided that you continue to confide in that goodness; otherwise you, also, will be cut off. [23] And they, too, if they do not continue in their unbelief, will be grafted in; for God has it in his power to graft them in again. [24] If you were cut off from your natural stock – a wild olive – and were grafted, contrary to the course of nature, on a good olive, much more will they – the natural branches – be grafted back into their parent tree.

The Restoration of Israel

[25] My friends, so that you don’t think too highly of yourselves, I want you to recognise the truth, hitherto hidden, that the callousness which has come over Israel is only partial, and will continue only until the whole Gentile world has been gathered in. [26] And then all Israel will be saved. As scripture says –

From Zion will come the Deliverer;
he will banish ungodliness from Jacob.
[27] And they will see the fulfilment of my covenant,
when I have taken away their sins.

[28] From the standpoint of the good news, the Jews are God’s enemies for your sake; but from the standpoint of God’s selection, they are dear to him for the sake of the Patriarchs. [29] For God never regrets his gifts or his call. [30] Just as you at one time were disobedient to him, but have now found mercy in the day of their disobedience; [31] so, too, they have now become disobedient in your day of mercy, in order that they also in their turn may now find mercy. [32] For God has given all alike over to disobedience, that to all alike he may show mercy.

[33] Oh! The unfathomable wisdom and knowledge of God! How inscrutable are his judgments, how untraceable his ways! Yes –

[34] Who has ever comprehended the mind of the Lord?
Who has ever become his counsellor?
[35] Or who has first given to him,
so that he may claim a reward?

[36] For all things are from him, through him, and for him. And to him be all glory for ever and ever! Amen.

3.20.2 Comments

[13] But I am speaking to you who were Gentiles. [14] Being myself an apostle to the Gentiles, I exalt my office, in the hope that I may stir my countrymen to rivalry, and so save some of them. [15] For, if their being cast aside has meant the reconciliation of the world, what will their reception mean, but life from the dead? [16] If the first handful of dough is holy, so is the whole mass; and if the root is holy, so are the branches.

Verses 13 to 16 set the scene for a warning to the non-Jews in his audience not to look down on the Jews.

But I am speaking to you Gentiles.

Paul directly addresses the non-Jews in his audience. One might take this to mean that he has only been addressing Hebrews up to this point. If so, where would he have started to address them? It is hard to say whether Paul is focussed on the Jewish or non-Jewish component of his audience earlier in the book. The diatribe partner who has been active throughout Paul’s argument in the preceding chapters of Romans would seem to be Jewish. The main thesis of Paul’s address up until the end of chapter eight is that God’s way of making people right is open to both Jews and non-Jews, but it seems to be addressed to people well versed in the Hebrew Bible. Perhaps Paul shifts his focus from a general audience to the Jewish members at the beginning of chapter nine when he begins to talk about his heartbreak with respect to the Israelites. Another possibility is that he has been addressing Jews and non-Jews until now, but is about to focus on the non-Jews for a while. If so, when will he shift back to a more general audience? My guess is that this is a short interlude that only lasts until verse 32 when Paul says “God has shut up all in disobedience so that He may show mercy to all”.

Being myself an apostle to the Gentiles, I exalt my office, in the hope that I may stir my countrymen to rivalry, and so save some of them.

On the road to Damascus, with a lightning flash and thunderous voice, Jesus Christ sent Paul to proclaim the Good News to the non-Jews. Paul takes his commission very seriously and uses every opportunity and circumstance to fulfill it. He glorifies his position as Apostle to the Gentiles, a position given to him by Christ himself and acknowledged by James, Peter, and John. (We might say “builds it up” instead of “glorifies”.)

Paul seems to be using covetousness to advance his cause! He well understands the human propensity to covet, as shown in chapter seven. We might say that Paul is being manipulative, but that would be anachronistic. Instead he is using whatever means he has to persuade, including what advertisers (who are manipulative) use to sell things today, namely the desire to have what someone else has.

For, if their being cast aside has meant the reconciliation of the world, what will their reception mean, but life from the dead?

Here, as in chapter five, a twofold aspect of God’s work is in mind. In chapter five, Christ’s death achieves reconciliation but his life achieves even more. Here, if the “the throwing away” of the Jews makes non-Jews into God’s friends, how much more will result from the Jews being taken back again? “Life from the dead” is Paul’s answer.

If the first handful of dough is holy, so is the whole mass; and if the root is holy, so are the branches.

The first figure is from the Hebrew Bible (see e.g. Numbers 15.20-21). The second could be based on Jeremiah 11.16 but could just as well be an independent creation of Paul’s fertile mind.

Both the first fruit and branch figures could be applied to Christ. Isaiah 11.1 says “Then a shoot will spring from the stem of Jesse, And a branch from his roots will bear fruit”, and Paul has just used the phrase “life from the dead” in 11.15. However, later on (verse 18), Paul interprets “root” to mean Israel.

[17] Some, however, of the branches were broken off, and you, who were only a wild olive, were grafted in among them, and came to share with them the root which is the source of the richness of the cultivated olive.

Some say this shows Paul had no idea about gardening. Who grafts a wild shoot onto a cultivated tree? As is often the case, it takes a bit of digging to discover the root, the native dignity of the biblical witness. It turns out that until the 20th century, the people of Palestine were still grafting wild olive shoots onto cultivated stock in order to reinvigorate old trees. (Bruce 1985, 204) Why not try it and see what happens?

The branches that have been broken off are Paul’s compatriots who have not believed that Jesus Christ is the root of Jesse. Christ is the root, the one without whom the tree cannot live. (John uses the figure of a grape vine in a similar way.)

[18] Yet do not exult over the other branches. But, if you do exult over them, remember that you do not support the root, but that the root supports you. [19] But branches, you will say, were broken off, so that I might be grafted in. [20] True; it was because of their want of faith that they were broken off, and it is because of your faith that you are standing. Do not think too highly of yourself, but beware. [21] For, if God did not spare the natural branches, neither will he spare you.

Yet do not exult over the other branches

Here is a hint that the non-Jews among the believers at Rome were looking down on their Jewish brothers and sisters, and this may be why Paul specifically addresses the non-Jews in this passage.

remember that you do not support the root, but that the root supports you

Here “the root” applies to the Israelites, which goes against interpreting the “root” of the olive tree as Christ.

But branches, you will say, were broken off, so that I might be grafted in.

Paul is using diatribe again, this time with a non-Jew supplying the words about to be refuted (i.e. “the branches were broken off so that I might be grafted in”). Paul retorts with a warning: there is nothing to stop the wild branches being cut off as well if they go wrong.

you stand by your faith

Faith is the basis of right standing before God. It is an active thing, and this passage indicates that people can wander away from what sustains them. So a most important part of Christian work is to build up faith. How does one do that today?

[22] See, then, both the goodness and the severity of God – his severity towards those who fell, and his goodness towards you, provided that you continue to confide in that goodness; otherwise you, also, will be cut off. [23] And they, too, if they do not continue in their unbelief, will be grafted in; for God has it in his power to graft them in again. [24] If you were cut off from your natural stock – a wild olive – and were grafted, contrary to the course of nature, on a good olive, much more will they – the natural branches – be grafted back into their parent tree.

God has been severe to those who failed (πεσοντασ) but kind (χρηστοτητα) to the believers.

if you continue in His kindness

There is a proviso, a condition for continued right standing. The condition is, again, faith, as confirmed by the contrasting unbelief of verse 23. Another word that could be used instead of “continue” is “persist”. Persistence is a sign of genuine faith, and faith a condition for ongoing persistence. The thing that can derail the train is not failuer to keep the Law but failure to keep the faith. F. F. Bruce says, “The perseverance of the saints is a doctrine firmly grounded in New Testament (and not least in Pauline) teaching; but its corollary is that it is the saints who persevere.” What do you think is the basis of perseverance? Is it something sourced within God or within ourselves? How do we get at it? This to me is a crucial question for practical Christianity. I think that the answer is based on a relationship of trust with God; if that is lost then all is lost.

And they, too, if they do not continue in their unbelief, will be grafted in.

There is now an unexpected switch. Far from continuing exclusion, God is able to restore the unbelieving Israelites! All that is required is for them to desist from unbelief and to start believing that Jesus Christ is the root of Jesse. Another “if A then how much more will B” construction is used to show that Jews are in fact more easily grafted in than non-Jews. This is a switch because the emphasis until now has been the Israelites’ failure.

[25] My friends, so that you don’t think too highly of yourselves, I want you to recognise the truth, hitherto hidden, that the callousness which has come over Israel is only partial, and will continue only until the whole Gentile world has been gathered in. [26] And then all Israel will be saved. As scripture says –

From Zion will come the Deliverer;
he will banish ungodliness from Jacob.
[27] And they will see the fulfilment of my covenant,
when I have taken away their sins.

For I do not want you, brethren, to be uninformed of this mystery—so that you will not be wise in your own estimation—that a partial hardening has happened to Israel until the fullness of the Gentiles has come in.

“I do not want you to be ignorant…” underlines the importance of what is about to be said. (It’s a shame to be a dummy.) The last time Paul used this phrase was in his introduction at 1.13. What Paul wants the Roman Christians to know is a mystery – something not accessed by human wisdom or thought but only through God revealing it. The mystery is that all Israel will be saved! We are not told the source of Paul’s special knowledge. It might be something that God revealed to him, but might also be based on Paul’s knowledge of what God has promised – namely what God’s prophets have said.

Paul’s experience on the road to Damascus might have a bearing on this. He would, apart from God’s grace, be part of hardened Israel. Yet Christ had appeared to him and commissioned him despite his unbelief. Paul’s own experience is a foretaste of God’s revelation of Christ to all Israel, despite their unbelief.

The scriptural quotation seems to be a mash up of Isaiah 59.20-21, Psalm 14.7 (or 53.6), Isaiah 27.9, and Jeremiah 31.33-34.

[28] From the standpoint of the good news, the Jews are God’s enemies for your sake; but from the standpoint of God’s selection, they are dear to him for the sake of the Patriarchs. [29] For God never regrets his gifts or his call. [30] Just as you at one time were disobedient to him, but have now found mercy in the day of their disobedience; [31] so, too, they have now become disobedient in your day of mercy, in order that they also in their turn may now find mercy. [32] For God has given all alike over to disobedience, that to all alike he may show mercy.

This is a highly structured piece of text:

Part	Greek	English
A	κατα μεν το ευαγγελιον εχθροι δι υμας	concerning the Gospel, enemies because of you
B	κατα δε την εκλογην αγαπητοι δια τους πατερας	concerning the Elect, loved because of the Fathers
C	αμεταμελητα γαρ τα χαρισματα και η κλησις του θεου	for irrevocable are the gifts and call of God
D	ωσπερ γαρ και υμεις ποτε ηπειθησατε τω θεω	for just as you once were disobedient to God
E	νυν δε ηλεηθητε τη τουτων απειθεια	but now have received mercy by their disobedience
F	ουτως και ουτοι νυν ηπειθησαν τω υμετερω ελεει	so also they now were disobedient for your mercy
G	ινα και αυτοι ελεηθωσιν	so that they also may receive mercy
H	συνεκλεισεν γαρ ο θεος τους παντας εις απειθειαν	for God has confined all in disobedience
I	ινα τους παντας ελεηση	so that to all he may show mercy

• A and B are parallel.

• C refers back to elements of A and B (gifts to the Gospel; call to the Fathers)

• D and F are parallel statements of past conditions

• E and G are parallel statements of the purposes of the conditions in D and F.

• H is a key statement which picks up on instances of “disobedience” in D, E, and F

• G and I are parallel.

• F, G, and I all mention mercy.

The statement that God has confined all to disobedience so that He can have mercy on all is a pretty good summary of the entire book of Romans up until this point. (Paul says a similar thing at Galatians 3.22.) Paul has come full circle from his statement at Romans 3.23 that all have sinned and fallen short of the glory of God. Now he reveals the wonderful truth that this is all part of God’s intent to have mercy on all.

But who is “all”?

[33] Oh! The unfathomable wisdom and knowledge of God! How inscrutable are his judgments, how untraceable his ways! Yes –

[34] Who has ever comprehended the mind of the Lord?
Who has ever become his counsellor?
[35] Or who has first given to him,
so that he may claim a reward?

[36] For all things are from him, through him, and for him. And to him be all glory for ever and ever! Amen.

Paul’s excursus on the problem of Israel’s unbelief concludes with a magnificent doxology, an anthem to God’s wisdom.

There is a lot of structure in this passage too. The biblical quotations (Isaiah 40.13 (LXX), Job 41.3) correspond to the riches, wisdom, and knowledge of God, but in reverse order:

reference	quotation
riches	who has given a gift to him in the hope of being repaid?
wisdom	who has been his counsellor?
knowlegde	who has known the mind of the Lord?

References:

(Byrne 2007, 348–61)

3.21 Romans 12.1-16

3.21.1 English text

The New Life in Christ

[Romans 12] [1] I entreat you, then, friends, by the mercies of God, to offer your bodies as a living and holy sacrifice, acceptable to God, for this is your rational worship. [2] Do not conform to the fashion of this world; but be transformed by the complete change that has come over your minds, so that you may discern what God’s will is – all that is good, acceptable, and perfect.

[3] In fulfilment of the charge with which I have been entrusted, I tell every one of you not to think more highly of himself than he ought to think, but to think until he learns to think soberly – in accordance with the measure of faith that God has allotted to each. [4] For, just as in the human body there is a union of many parts, and each part has its own function, [5] so we, by our union in Christ, many though we are, form but one body, and individually we are related one to another as its parts. [6] Since our gifts differ in accordance with the particular charge entrusted to us, if our gift is to preach, let our preaching correspond to our faith; [7] if it is to minister to others, let us devote ourselves to our ministry; the teacher to their teaching, [8] the counselor to their counsel. Let the person who gives in charity do so with a generous heart; let the person who is in authority exercise due diligence; let the person who shows kindness do so in a cheerful spirit.

Rules of the Christian Life

[9] Let your love be sincere. Hate the wrong; cling to the right. [10] In the love of the community of the Lord’s followers, be affectionate to one another; in showing respect, set an example of deference to one another; [11] never flagging in zeal; fervent in spirit; serving the Master; [12] rejoicing in your hope; steadfast under persecution; persevering in prayer; [13] relieving the wants of Christ’s people; devoted to hospitality. [14] Bless your persecutors – bless and never curse. [15] Rejoice with those who are rejoicing, and weep with those who are weeping. [16] Let the same spirit of sympathy animate you all, not a spirit of pride; enjoy the company of ordinary people. Do not think too highly of yourselves.

3.21.2 Comments

[Romans 12] [1] I entreat you, then, friends, by the mercies of God, to offer your bodies as a living and holy sacrifice, acceptable to God, for this is your rational worship. [2] Do not conform to the fashion of this world; but be transformed by the complete change that has come over your minds, so that you may discern what God’s will is – all that is good, acceptable, and perfect.

At this point Romans shifts into parenesis. This is a call to moral action, advising the hearers to live according to the grace given to them by God through Jesus Christ. Other English words to translate parenesis are urge, exhort, appeal, advocate, admonish.

If Romans fits the pattern of deliberative (i.e. advisory) rhetoric then we have just entered the exhortation part (Longenecker 2011, 183):

1. Introduction: sets out character of speaker; defines issues addressed
2. Proposition: point to be proved (What do you think?)
3. Narration: relevant facts
4. Proof: arguments in support of the point being proved (Why do you think so?)
5. Exhortation: what should therefore be done (What difference does it make?)
6. Conclusion: summary and further call to action

Romans might better be described as a “word of exhortation” (λογοσ προτρεπτικοσ), “a type of address intended to win converts and attract people to a particular way of life.” (Longenecker 2011, 197) (Paul and Barnabas are asked to deliver a word of exhortation (λογος παρακλησεως) at Acts 13.15.) This type of address contains the following elements:

1. critique of rival ways
2. truth of the advocated way presented, praised, defended
3. appeal to audience

Regardless of which pattern is the best fit, there is no doubt that we have arrived at Paul’s call to action. (A similar shift happens at Hebrews chapter 12.)

by the mercies of God

The basis of Paul’s appeal is God’s tender mercy. The last part of chapter eleven mentions God’s mercy repeatedly.

present your bodies a living and holy sacrifice

Normally the sacrifice is already dead. This is reminiscent of the dead yet alive theme Paul used earlier in relation to the significance of baptism into Christ. Compare 1 Peter 2.5 (“spiritual sacrifices”) and Hebrews 13.15 (“living sacrifices”).

rational worship

The first word (λογικην) can mean reasonable (i.e. rational) or spiritual (as at 1 Peter 2.2). The second (λατρειαν) means service, worship, rites, or duties.

Do not conform to the fashion of this world

Or, “Don’t be conformed to the pattern of this age”.

but be transformed by the renewing of your mind

“Be transformed” (μεταμορφουσθε) is the same word used to describe Christ’s transfiguration at Mark 9.2. It is also used at 2 Cor 3.18, which passage F. F. Bruce describes as “a useful commentary” on Rom 12.2. (Bruce 1985, 214)

[3] In fulfilment of the charge with which I have been entrusted, I tell every one of you not to think more highly of himself than he ought to think, but to think until he learns to think soberly – in accordance with the measure of faith that God has allotted to each. [4] For, just as in the human body there is a union of many parts, and each part has its own function, [5] so we, by our union in Christ, many though we are, form but one body, and individually we are related one to another as its parts. [6] Since our gifts differ in accordance with the particular charge entrusted to us, if our gift is to preach, let our preaching correspond to our faith; [7] if it is to minister to others, let us devote ourselves to our ministry; the teacher to their teaching, [8] the counselor to their counsel. Let the person who gives in charity do so with a generous heart; let the person who is in authority exercise due diligence; let the person who shows kindness do so in a cheerful spirit.

Verse three has repeated instances of the word φρονειν and its compounds.

Part	Greek	English(ish)
A	λεγω γαρ δια της χαριτος της δοθεισης μοι	for I say through the gift (grace) given to me
B	παντι τω οντι εν υμιν	to all those among you
C	μη υπερφρονειν παρ ο δει φρονειν	not to think more highly than should be thought
D	αλλα φρονειν εις το σωφρονειν	but to think in safe thinking
E	εκαστω ως ο θεος εμερισεν μετρον πιστεως	to each as God shared a measure of faith

Verses 4-5 use the analogy of a human body, which Paul also uses at 1 Cor 12.27. Verse five describes each one as part of one another. This is a beautiful illustration of God’s purpose. None is complete without the other. Communion is essential to Christian life. The body of Christ is a communal entity that requires its individual members to be a spiritual mesh for anything good to happen.

Verse six says “having different gifts (graces) according to the gift (grace) given to us”. One possibility is that God gives people different measures of gifting. Somehow faith and gift are commensurate. We ought not to regard ourselves more highly than makes sense in the light of the amount of faith God gave us when he gave us his gift of faith. Another thought is to think back to when you believed and think about what spiritual gift God gave you then. This is what God has given you to use together with the different gifts He has given to others in your Christian community. These gifts work in communion, not in separation.

Some gifts and their measures of giving are given in verses 6-8:

Gift	Measure
if prophecy	according to the proportion of faith
if service	in service
if teaching	in teaching
if urging	in urging
the sharer	in generosity
the leader	in earnestness
the merciful	in hilarity

This might mean that we should exercise our gifts according to how much of the appropriate measure we have. So if you have people who are full of faith then let them preach; the more faith the more often! By the same measure, don’t put those who lack hilarity in charge of a mercy ministry. Another possibility is that we should devote ourselves to our gift. If the gift is teaching then teach, if serving then serve. And if it’s not your gift then leave it to someone whose gift it is.

[9] Let your love be sincere. Hate the wrong; cling to the right. [10] In the love of the community of the Lord’s followers, be affectionate to one another; in showing respect, set an example of deference to one another; [11] never flagging in zeal; fervent in spirit; serving the Master; [12] rejoicing in your hope; steadfast under persecution; persevering in prayer; [13] relieving the wants of Christ’s people; devoted to hospitality. [14] Bless your persecutors – bless and never curse. [15] Rejoice with those who are rejoicing, and weep with those who are weeping. [16] Let the same spirit of sympathy animate you all, not a spirit of pride; enjoy the company of ordinary people. Do not think too highly of yourselves.

Here is a summary of the Way of Christ as communicated by Paul. It reminds F. F. Bruce of Christ’s teaching in the Sermon on the Mount. (Bruce 1985, 215) As in 1 Corinthians, spiritual gifts are followed by an exposition on love. Similar sequences occur in 1 Thessalonians 5.12-22 and 1 Peter 3.8-12 (Byrne 2007, 375)

Let love be without hypocrisy

Compare 2 Cor 6.6 and 1 Peter 1.22.

loathe evil, cling to good

The commands from here to verse 13 use participles (verbal adjectives) are used pointing to a Semitic tradition. (Byrne 2007, 378) Did Paul knew Christ’s sayings in Aramaic form? Could he have had the Aramaic Λογια (Sayings) that Papias said were written down by Matthew?

Be devoted to one another in love; give preference to one another in honor

This is the kind of love found in a family – the kind that parents have for children – love that wants the best for the other, seeking the other’s benefit and honour.

Be of the same mind toward one another; do not be haughty in mind, but associate with the lowly. Do not be wise in your own estimation.

Verse sixteen includes three instances of the “think” verb (φρονειν) found four times in verse three. This inclusio would indicate to ancient ears that the content of verses three to sixteen is a unit, something like a modern day paragraph.

3.22 Romans 12.17-13.7

3.22.1 English text

[Romans 12] [17] Never return injury for injury. Aim at doing what everyone will recognise as honourable. [18] If it is possible, as far as rests with you, live peaceably with everyone. [19] Never avenge yourselves, dear friends, but make way for the wrath of God; for scripture declares -

It is for me to avenge, I will requite,

says the Lord. [20] Rather –

If your enemy is hungry, feed him; if he is thirsty, give him to drink. By doing this you will heap coals of fire on his head.

[21] Never be conquered by evil, but conquer evil with good.

Obedience to Rulers

[Romans 13] [1] Let everyone obey the supreme Authorities. For no Authority exists except by the will of God, and the existing Authorities have been appointed by God. [2] Therefore he who sets himself against the authorities is resisting God’s appointment, and those who resist will bring a judgment on themselves. [3] A good action has nothing to fear from Rulers; a bad action has. Do you want to have no reason to fear the Authorities? Then do what is good, and you will win their praise. [4] For they are God’s servants appointed for your good. But, if you do what is wrong, you may well be afraid; for the sword they carry is not without meaning! They are God’s servants to inflict his punishments on those who do wrong. [5] You are bound, therefore, to obey, not only through fear of God’s punishments, but also as a matter of conscience. [6] This, too, is the reason for your paying taxes; for the officials are God’s officers, devoting themselves to this special work. [7] In all cases pay what is due from you – tribute where tribute is due, taxes where taxes are due, respect where respect is due, and honour where honour is due.

3.22.2 Comments

[Romans 12] [17] Never return injury for injury. Aim at doing what everyone will recognise as honourable. [18] If it is possible, as far as rests with you, live peaceably with everyone. [19] Never avenge yourselves, dear friends, but make way for the wrath of God; for scripture declares -

It is for me to avenge, I will requite,

says the Lord. [20] Rather –

If your enemy is hungry, feed him; if he is thirsty, give him to drink. By doing this you will heap coals of fire on his head.

[21] Never be conquered by evil, but conquer evil with good.

Paul’s advice (parenesis) continues.

do not give back wrong for wrong This is the essence of Jesus’ message of forgiveness. Forgive others as God has forgiven you. An essential part of forgiveness is to give up the option of revenge. This is a succinct summary of Jesus’ teaching on the “eye for eye, and tooth for tooth” doctrine (see Ex 21.24, Lev 24.20, Deut 19.21) in the Sermon on the Mount Matt 5.38-5.42. (See also Luke 6.29-30.) Other parallels for Paul’s words here are found at 1 Thess 5.15 and 1 Peter 3.9.

Aim at doing what everyone will recognise as honourable.

See Proverbs 3.4 (LXX): και προνοου καλα ενωπιον κυριου και ανθρωπων compared with προνοουμενοι καλα ενωπιον παντων ανθρωπων here. The world is watching and so we need to think ahead. What ids the honourable thing to do in this situation. These days are full of moral dilemmas. How should Christ’s people live in a time when we are faced with impossible choices? Part of the answer is to think about it. What is the honourable way to proceed before the world at large and before the Lord (who is included at Proverbs 3.4)? Even though the world is ruled by dark forces, it still seems for the most part to be able to know what is right.

If possible, so far as it depends on you, be at peace with all men.

A similar thing is said at Hebrews 12.14. Our default position is to pursue peace, not war, with all people.

Never take your own revenge, beloved, but leave room for the wrath of God.

Literally “wrath”; “of God” is not stated in the Greek. (The same thing happens at Rom 5.9.)

Vengeance is Mine, I will repay

This is from the Song of Moses (Deut 32.35). F. F. Bruce writes (Bruce 1985, 217):

The present form of the text, found also in Hebrews 10.30, appears in the Aramaic Targums and was probably current in a Greek version not now extant. The point of the quotation here is that, since vengeance and requital are God’s prerogative, their exercise should be left to him.

But if your enemy is hungry, feed him, and if he is thirsty, give him a drink; for in so doing you will heap burning coals on his head.

This quotation is from Proverbs 25.21-22. Paul seems to have known the Book of Proverbs well. He omits “and the Lord will reward you”, which ends Prov 25.22. The force of the quotation may be that treating your enemies well will result in worse punishment for them. See e.g. Psalm 140.9-10. It may also be that treating your enemies well will shame them into repentance. (Putting ashes or a pan of coals on your head signified repentance.) In the Sermon on the Mount, Jesus gives another motivation for treating enemies well: “be perfect, as your Father in heaven is perfect”.

[Romans 13] [1] Let everyone obey the supreme Authorities. For no Authority exists except by the will of God, and the existing Authorities have been appointed by God. [2] Therefore he who sets himself against the authorities is resisting God’s appointment, and those who resist will bring a judgment on themselves. [3] A good action has nothing to fear from Rulers; a bad action has. Do you want to have no reason to fear the Authorities? Then do what is good, and you will win their praise. [4] For they are God’s servants appointed for your good. But, if you do what is wrong, you may well be afraid; for the sword they carry is not without meaning! They are God’s servants to inflict his punishments on those who do wrong. [5] You are bound, therefore, to obey, not only through fear of God’s punishments, but also as a matter of conscience. [6] This, too, is the reason for your paying taxes; for the officials are God’s officers, devoting themselves to this special work. [7] In all cases pay what is due from you – tribute where tribute is due, taxes where taxes are due, respect where respect is due, and honour where honour is due.

Paul turns his attention to Christian relations with respect to ruling authorities. He doesn’t use the Hebrew Bible to back up his instructions, possibly because there is a lack of material to use. Genesis begins with the first humans being given authority over creation but says little if anything about government of humans. (Elsewhere Paul does use the creation account when speaking about authority in relation to husbands and wives.) Genesis ends with the happy example of a benevolent governor, Joseph, ruling in place of Egypt’s king. However, Exodus begins with a bad king. The Hebrew midwives who defy that king’s authority are commended and even rewarded by God.

Paul states how Christians should relate to their government:

• There is no authority if not under God; existing authorities under God have been established by him.

• To stand against these authorities is to stand against God’s instructions.

• The governing authority is a servant of God to you, praising those who do good but avenging with wrath those who do bad.

The first principle has been called the divine right of kings. It is all well and good until we encounter bad government. Even then this passage by Paul could be taken as an unconditional command to comply with government demands, even if they are not what a Christian can happily accept. It is hard to argue with the statement that all things are under God’s authority. God is supreme and nothing that happens can happen apart from him – government included.

What then, when a despot comes to power? Are we to submit, do the Nazi salute, and worship the state as all-supreme? Dietrich Bonhoeffer decided that the answer is no. He was a pacifist, having decided that war was a great evil. (He had been deeply moved by All Quiet on the Western Front.) He recognised that Hitler’s regime was trouble. He said so during a radio broadcast but had the plug pulled on him. That was 1933. A decade later the same man took part in a plot to kill Hitler. Bonhoeffer was executed at Flossenbürg concentration camp on April 9, 1945, following a drumhead court martial. Here is something he wrote, which shows Paul’s letter to the Romans imprinted on his mind:

When a man takes guilt upon himself in responsibility, he imputes his guilt to himself and no one else. He answers for it… Before other men he is justified by dire necessity; before himself he is acquitted by his conscience, but before God he hopes only for grace.

(Bonhoeffer 1965, 244)

3.23 Romans 13.8-14.12

3.23.1 English text

Brotherly Love

[Romans 13] [8] Owe nothing to anyone except love; for they who love their neighbour have satisfied the Law. [9] The commandments,

You must not commit adultery, You must not kill, You must not steal, You must not covet,

and whatever other commandment there is, are all summed up in the words -

You must love your neighbour as you love yourself.

[10] Love never wrongs a neighbour. Therefore love fully satisfies the Law.

The Approach of the Day of Christ

[11] This I say, because you know the crisis that we have reached, for the time has already come for you to rouse yourselves from sleep; our salvation is nearer now than when we accepted the faith. [12] The night is almost gone; the day is near. Therefore let us have done with the deeds of darkness, and arm ourselves with the weapons of light. [13] Being in the light of day, let us live becomingly, not in revelry and drunkenness, not in lust and licentiousness, not in quarrelling and jealousy. [14] No! Arm yourselves with the spirit of the Lord Jesus Christ, and spend no thought on your earthly nature, to satisfy its cravings.

Do Not Judge Your Brother

[Romans 14] [1] As for those whose faith is weak, always receive them as friends, but not for the purpose of passing judgment on their scruples. [2] One person’s faith permits of their eating food of all kinds, while another whose faith is weak eats only vegetable food. [3] The person who eats meat must not despise the person who abstains from it; nor must the person who abstains from eating meat pass judgment on the one who eats it, for God himself has received them. [4] Who are you, that you should pass judgment on the servant of another? Their standing or falling concerns their own master. And stand they will, for their Master can enable them to stand. [5] Again, one person considers some days to be more sacred than others, while another considers all days to be alike. Everyone ought to be fully convinced in their own mind. [6] The person who observes a day, observes it to the Master’s honour. They, again, who eat meat eat it to the Master’s honour, for they give thanks to God; while the person who abstains from it abstains from it to the Master’s honour, and also gives thanks to God. [7] There is not one of us whose life concerns ourselves alone, and not one of us whose death concerns ourself alone; [8] for, if we live, our life is for the Master, and, if we die, our death is for the Master. Whether, then, we live or die we belong to the Master. [9] The purpose for which Christ died and came back to life was this – that he might be Lord over both the dead and the living. [10] I would ask the one “Why do you judge other followers of the Lord?” And I would ask the other “Why do you despise them?” For we will all stand before the court of God. [11] For scripture says -

‘As surely as I live,’ says the Lord, ‘every knee will bend before me
and every tongue will praise God.’

[12] So, then, each one of us will have to render account of himself to God.

3.23.2 Comments

[Romans 13] [8] Owe nothing to anyone except love; for they who love their neighbour have satisfied the Law. [9] The commandments,

You must not commit adultery, You must not kill, You must not steal, You must not covet,

and whatever other commandment there is, are all summed up in the words -

You must love your neighbour as you love yourself.

[10] Love never wrongs a neighbour. Therefore love fully satisfies the Law.

Owe nothing to anyone except to love one another

George Müller took this scripture at face value; he understood the “owe nothing to anyone” as an instruction not to go into debt.

for he who loves his neighbor has fulfilled the law

This might also be translated as “for he who loves has fulfilled the other law.” The commandments are from the second table of the ten commandments. The first table relates to God and the second table relates to people. The first table is summarised by “Love the Lord you God with all your heart” and the second table is summed up in “love your neighbour as yourself.” The order of commandments given is unusual but is found in some manuscripts of the Septuagint.

Love does no wrong to a neighbor; therefore love is the fulfillment of the law.

Paul has gone to a lot of trouble in the first eight chapters of Romans to demonstrate that trusting God is what counts, not works of the law. Is there some irony in Paul now saying that love is the fulfillment of the Law? Perhaps, but the overarching theme of this section is love. Christ is the end of the Law, and love is the fullness of the Law.

[11] This I say, because you know the crisis that we have reached, for the time has already come for you to rouse yourselves from sleep; our salvation is nearer now than when we accepted the faith. [12] The night is almost gone; the day is near. Therefore let us have done with the deeds of darkness, and arm ourselves with the weapons of light. [13] Being in the light of day, let us live becomingly, not in revelry and drunkenness, not in lust and licentiousness, not in quarrelling and jealousy. [14] No! Arm yourselves with the spirit of the Lord Jesus Christ, and spend no thought on your earthly nature, to satisfy its cravings.

Paul now switches to the image of a breaking dawn, light instead of darkness. Similar imagery is used at 1 Thessalonians 5.1-11. There is a sense of urgency, of the present time being most significant. Things are about to change. There was a general expectation among Christians that Christ’s return was imminent. Paul encourages his hearers to behave as people walking in the light, not revelling in the shadows. F. F. Bruce writes (Bruce 1985, 228), “The antithesis between darkness and light is found repeatedly in Paul’s writings … as well as in John’s.” (Is this a coincidence? Are there points of thematic contact between the writings of Paul and John. How might this have happened?)

The “works of darkness” could be an allusion to works of the Law, though the immediately following “revelry and drunkenness, lust and licentiousness, quarrelling and jealousy” seems a better match.

Just as we change our clothes when we get out of bed, so we are to cloth ourselves with the armour of light, to clothe ouselves with Christ. Dionysius of Halicarnassus uses “putting on” in the sense of “playing the part.” That is, to put on Christ is to act as he would act, though not in the hypocritical sense of making an outward show with no inward conviction.

Having on the armour of light is all the more essential as the dawn approaches, for then the forces of darkness will be at their worst, knowing their time is short.

make no provision for the flesh in regard to its lusts

Compare 6.11-14. “Present yourselves to God as those alive from the dead” at 6.13 is comparable to “present yourselves a living sacrifice” at the beginning of chapter 12. If 13.14 is a counterpart to 12.1 then we might suspect that a transition to another topic is about to happen, and so it does.

[Romans 14] [1] As for those whose faith is weak, always receive them as friends, but not for the purpose of passing judgment on their scruples. [2] One person’s faith permits of their eating food of all kinds, while another whose faith is weak eats only vegetable food. [3] The person who eats meat must not despise the person who abstains from it; nor must the person who abstains from eating meat pass judgment on the one who eats it, for God himself has received them. [4] Who are you, that you should pass judgment on the servant of another? Their standing or falling concerns their own master. And stand they will, for their Master can enable them to stand.

What has meat and vegetables got to do with Christianity? To us this part seems incomprehensible. However, some time earlier the apostles in Jerusalem had written to advise that Gentile believers “abstain from things contaminated by idols and from fornication and from what is strangled and from blood.” Some among the Roman believers were on the Daniel diet while others – like Paul – could eat meat without any qualms of conscience.

Some hae meat and cannae eat,

some nae meat but want it.

We hae meat and we can eat,

and sae the Lord be thankit.

(The Selkirk Grace by Robert Burns.)

Paul describes those with qualms of this kind as “weak”, perhaps because their dietary scruples seem too much like Law work to him. The main point however is not who is weak or strong but to refrain from judging fellow believers. After all, God has accepted them. Once again Paul echoes Christ’s teaching, this time in his advice to “judge not.” (Compare Luke 6.37.)

Who are you to judge the servant of another?

How one underling assesses another is of little import. What matters is the boss’s opinion. This boss is κυριοσ, the Risen Lord. He is able to make the underling stand, whether viewed as weak or strong by the co-underlings.

Here is a wonderful thing to remember: Christ is able to make us stand; he can resurrect us.

[5] Again, one person considers some days to be more sacred than others, while another considers all days to be alike. Everyone ought to be fully convinced in their own mind. [6] The person who observes a day, observes it to the Master’s honour. They, again, who eat meat eat it to the Master’s honour, for they give thanks to God; while the person who abstains from it abstains from it to the Master’s honour, and also gives thanks to God.

The days mentioned are probably Jewish ones. Compare Colossians 2.16: “Therefore no one is to act as your judge in regard to food or drink or in respect to a festival or a new moon or a Sabbath day…”

[7] There is not one of us whose life concerns ourselves alone, and not one of us whose death concerns ourself alone; [8] for, if we live, our life is for the Master, and, if we die, our death is for the Master. Whether, then, we live or die we belong to the Master. [9] The purpose for which Christ died and came back to life was this – that he might be Lord over both the dead and the living.

not one of us lives for himself, and not one dies for himself

The one who we are advised to live or die for is Christ, who lived and died that he could be Master over the living and the dead.

[10] I would ask the one “Why do you judge other followers of the Lord?” And I would ask the other “Why do you despise them?” For we will all stand before the court of God. [11] For scripture says -

‘As surely as I live,’ says the Lord, ‘every knee will bend before me
and every tongue will praise God.’

[12] So, then, each one of us will have to render account of himself to God.

An essential part of Paul’s teaching is that Christ is God’s appointed judge. See e.g. his speech on Mars Hill at Acts 17.22-31. No one is exempt from giving an account of his or her life, least of all believers. It is worth remembering that the context of Paul’s reminder relates to judging one another.

But how do we not?

3.24 Romans 14.13-15.13

3.24.1 English text

Do Not Make Your Brother Stumble

[13] Let us, then, cease to judge one another. Rather let this be your resolve – never to place a stumbling-block or an obstacle in the way of a fellow follower of the Lord. [14] Through my union with the Lord Jesus, I know and am persuaded that nothing is defiling in itself. A thing is “defiling” only to the person who holds it to be so. [15] If, for the sake of what you eat, you wound your fellow follower’s feelings, your life has ceased to be ruled by love. Do not, by what you eat, ruin someone for whom Christ died! [16] Do not let what is right for you become a matter of reproach. [17] For the kingdom of God does not consist of eating and drinking, but of righteousness and peace and gladness through the presence of the Holy Spirit. [18] The person who serves the Christ in this way pleases God, and wins the approval of their fellows.

[19] Therefore our efforts should be directed towards all that makes for peace and the mutual building up of character. [20] Do not undo God’s work for the sake of what you eat. Though everything is “clean,” yet, if a person eats so as to put a stumbling-block in the way of others, they do wrong. [21] The right course is to abstain from meat or wine or, indeed, anything that is a stumbling-block to your fellow follower of the Lord. [22] As for yourself – keep this conviction of yours to yourself, as in the presence of God. Happy the person who never has to condemn themselves in regard to something they think right! [23] The person, however, who has misgivings stands condemned if they still eat, because their doing so is not the result of faith. And anything not done as the result of faith is a sin.

[Romans 15] [1] We, the strong, ought to take on our own shoulders the weaknesses of those who are not strong, and not merely to please ourselves. [2] Let each of us please our neighbour for our neighbour’s good, to help in the building up of their character. [3] Even the Christ did not please himself! On the contrary, as scripture says of him -

The reproaches of those who were reproaching you fell upon me.

[4] Whatever was written in the scriptures in days gone by was written for our instruction, so that, through patient endurance, and through the encouragement drawn from the scriptures, we might hold fast to our hope. [5] And may God, the giver of this patience and this encouragement, grant you to be united in sympathy in Christ, [6] so that with one heart and one voice you may praise the God and Father of Jesus Christ, our Lord.

[7] Therefore always receive one another as friends, just as the Christ himself received us, to the glory of God. [8] For I tell you that Christ, in vindication of God’s truthfulness, has become a minister of the covenant of circumcision, so that he may fulfil the promises made to our ancestors, [9] and that the Gentiles also may praise God for his mercy. As scripture says -

Therefore will I make acknowledgment to you among the Gentiles
and sing in honour of your name.

[10] And again it says -

Rejoice, you Gentiles, with God’s people.

[11] And yet again -

Praise the Lord, all you Gentiles,
and let all Peoples sing his praises.

[12] Again, Isaiah says -

There will be a Scion of the house of Jesse,
One who is to arise to rule the Gentiles;
on him will the Gentiles rest their hopes.

[13] May God, who inspires our hope, grant you perfect happiness and peace in your faith, until you are filled with this hope by the power of the Holy Spirit.

3.24.2 Comments

13 Therefore let us not judge one another anymore, but rather determine this – not to put an obstacle or a stumbling block in a brother’s way. 14 I know and am convinced in the Lord Jesus that nothing is unclean in itself; but to him who thinks anything to be unclean, to him it is unclean. 15 For if because of food your brother is hurt, you are no longer walking according to love. Do not destroy with your food him for whom Christ died. 16 Therefore do not let what is for you a good thing be spoken of as evil; 17 for the kingdom of God is not eating and drinking, but righteousness and peace and joy in the Holy Spirit.

righteousness] what is right (RKM)

We are not to judge (κρινωμεν) one another but rather judge (κρινατε) that we should not place a stumbling block (προσκομμα) or trap (σκανδαλον) before a fellow believer. Paul uses “judge” as a segue (in rhetoric, a “hook word”) from what has gone before to this section on walking in love. προσκομμα and σκανδαλον are used at 1 Peter 2.8 as well. Deciding (judging) not to trip or trap someone is a corollary of love. Would I try to hurt someone I am trying to love? Clearly not. The example of a stumbling block goes back to Leviticus 19.14. Shouting abuse at someone who can’t hear or putting a chair in front of someone who can’t see might sound funny but it is fun at the cost of another, and God takes a dim view of it.

Paul both knows and is persuaded that nothing is unclean in itself. We forget what a radical change must have taken place in Paul, a second generation pharisee, for him to decide that all foods are kosher. Peter, who as far as we know was not a pharisee, objected that no unclean thing had ever passed his lips (see e.g. Acts 11.1-18). How much more would the idea of eating unclean food have been anathema to Paul when he first encountered Christ. Somewhere along the line Paul learned then became persuaded that nothing is unclean of itself. However, we know nothing of this journey for Paul, apart from that he ended up with complete freedom of conscience with respect to food purity laws. His time in Antioch might have had something to do with it. The atmosphere there was such that Jews like Paul and Barnabas were free to eat with gentiles. When Peter came to visit he did the same but withdrew after some men from James turned up.

Paul’s genius in this section of text is to maintain the believer’s freedom of conscience while counselling believers never to do anything that will cause fellow believers to suffer harm by going against the dictates of their own consciences. Conscience is the key consideration. In the parable of the minas at Luke 19.22 the noble man says “I will judge you by your own words”, and those who seek to maintain a clear conscience before God suffer harm by doing what they have previously judged to be wrong. The injury is to the person’s own conscience, so would seem to be a small thing. After all, who is being harmed? However, there is a close connection between conscience and a person’s walk with God. At 1 Peter 3.21 baptism is associated with the promise of a good conscience toward God. A strike to the conscience is then a strike to a person’s relationship with God. Someone whose liberty causes another to trip is not walking in love. (1 John 2.3-10 has points of contact.) Paul uses the strongest possible language to drive home the point – do not destroy (απολλυε) a person for whom Christ was sacrificed. These are strong words indeed, indicating the gravity of what Paul is getting at. Insistence on a point of liberty can ruin someone who does not have the same freedom of conscience.

Verse 16 (“let not your (plural) good be slandered”) seems like an about face given what has just been said. Perhaps its juxtaposition with verse 15 is to underline both principles:

1. let not your freedom ruin another’s conscience;
2. let not a sensitive conscience slander your good freedom.

The conclusion is that God’s kingdom (only occurrence in Romans) is about peace, joy, and what is right, not questions about what we should eat or drink.

18 For he who in this way serves Christ is acceptable to God and approved by men. 19 So then we pursue the things which make for peace and the building up of one another. 20 Do not tear down the work of God for the sake of food. All things indeed are clean, but they are evil for the man who eats and gives offense. 21 It is good not to eat meat or to drink wine, or to do anything by which your brother stumbles. 22 The faith which you have, have as your own conviction before God. Happy is he who does not condemn himself in what he approves. 23 But he who doubts is condemned if he eats, because his eating is not from faith; and whatever is not from faith is sin.

This section reiterates what has gone before. In verse 22 and 23 “faith” appears again, but now in a different guise: it seems to refer to what you are convinced about before God – what sits well with your conscience. F. F. Bruce writes:

‘Faith’ in this sense is a firm and intelligent conviction before God that one is doing what is right, the antithesis of feeling self-condemned in what one permits oneself to do.

(Bruce 1985, 239)

Most Bibles end chapter fourteen at verse 23. However some add a benediction, which can also occur after 16.20 or 16.23 or both:

The grace of our Lord Jesus Christ be with all of you. Amen.

Some add a doxology, which usually occurs at the very end of Romans (i.e. 16.25-27):

Now to Him who is able to establish you according to my gospel and the preaching of Jesus Christ, according to the revelation of the mystery which has been kept secret for long ages past, but now is manifested, and by the Scriptures of the prophets, according to the commandment of the eternal God, has been made known to all the nations, leading to obedience of faith; to the only wise God, through Jesus Christ, be the glory forever. Amen.

Some add both the benediction and doxology at the end of chapter fourteen.

Confused? This is a good example of what Kurt Aland was talking about when he said that there are places in the text where it looks like a bomb went off.

The bomb that went off at the end of Romans may well have had a big “M” painted on it. What does the “M” stand for?

Marcion.

Around 144 Marcion began to teach that there were two Gods: one was transcendent, the One Jesus called Father; the other was the Artisan (Demiurge), the creator of the physical universe and deity of the Jews but lesser than the God of Jesus Christ. Marcion produced a canon of the New Testament (he was first to do so), an expurgation that started with Luke and ten of Paul’s letters, cutting out bits he regarded as too closely aligned with the Artisan.

In the case of Romans, Marcion’s version seems to have ended at the end of chapter 14. Rufinus’ Latin abridgment of Origen’s commentary on Romans says that Marcion cut out everything from the words “whatever is not from faith is sin” (i.e. 14.23) right to the end.

What has happened at the end of Romans may well be due to the influence of Marcion’s expurgated version. No one can be sure what happened, but in the aftermath the benediction and doxology and chapters fifteen and sixteen have been arranged in various ways (B. M. Metzger 2005, 471):

N	Arrangement	Witnesses
1	1.1-16.23, doxology	P61(?) Aleph B C D 81 1739 it-d it-61 vg syr-p cop-sa, cop-bo eth
2	1.1-14.23, doxology, 15.1-16.23, doxology	A P 0150 33 104 arm
3	1.1-14.23, doxology, 15.1-16.23, benediction	L Psi 0209(?) 181 326 330 614 1175 Byz syr-h mss (acc. to Origen (Latin))
4	1.1-16.23, benediction	F, G, ancestor of D?, 629, mss (acc. to Jerome)
5	1.1-15.33, doxology, 16.1-23	P46
6	1.1-14.23, benediction, doxology	some vg mss, Old Latin (acc. to capitula)

Here’s a neighbor-joining graph of Romans for comparison:

Romans

Unfortunately the data I have for Romans is somewhat sparse. However a more comprehensive data set is available for 2 Corinthians, thanks to Richard Mallett. Seeing these two letters were often copied as part of the same set (i.e. Paul’s Letters), it is not unreasonable to expect their textual witnesses to have similar affinities:

2 Corinthians

The end of Romans is one of the worst cases of textual uncertainty in the New Testament. Nevertheless, despite the major disruption we have all the pieces. There is not much doubt that chapters 15 and 16 belong where they are, though there were in recent times some inclined to think chapter 16 is an addition. Arrangements that repeat elements (e.g. have two doxologies) can be ruled out as pious attempts by copyists to preserve everything found in the respective texts. So any uncertainty about the text boils down to where a doxology and benediction should be placed. The position of the doxology at the end of the letter (i.e. 16.25-27) nicely balances material found at the beginning, making me think that is where Paul had placed it before Marcion came along with his knife.

1 Now we who are strong ought to bear the weaknesses of those without strength and not just please ourselves. 2 Each of us is to please his neighbor for his good, to his edification. 3 For even Christ did not please Himself; but as it is written, “The reproaches of those who reproached You fell on Me.” 4 For whatever was written in earlier times was written for our instruction, so that through perseverance and the encouragement of the Scriptures we might have hope. 5 Now may the God who gives perseverance and encouragement grant you to be of the same mind with one another according to Christ Jesus, 6 so that with one accord you may with one voice glorify the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ.

The address to both the strong and weak, whoever they are, continues. The strong are to support the weak; to please their neighbours, not themselves. The quotation is from Psalm 69.9b. This reinforces Paul’s advice for the strong to bear with the weak and for the weak to not reproach the strong. The purpose of all this is for believers to find common understanding, and so bring honour to God.

7 Therefore, accept one another, just as Christ also accepted us to the glory of God. 8 For I say that Christ has become a servant to the circumcision on behalf of the truth of God to confirm the promises given to the fathers, 9 and for the Gentiles to glorify God for His mercy; as it is written,

“Therefore I will give praise to You among the Gentiles, And I will sing to Your name.”

10 Again he says, “Rejoice, O Gentiles, with His people.”

11 And again, “Praise the Lord all you Gentiles, And let all the peoples praise Him.”

12 Again Isaiah says, “There shall come the root of Jesse, And He who arises to rule over the Gentiles, In Him shall the Gentiles hope.”

13 Now may the God of hope fill you with all joy and peace in believing, so that you will abound in hope by the power of the Holy Spirit.

This catena of scriptures finishes off the section addressed to the strong and the weak. Christ served the Jews in the name of God’s truth to fulfil God’s promises to the patriarchs; he served the non-Jews in the name of God’s mercy to honour God. (Such a lot of scriptures from the Hebrew Bible might have bothered Marcion.) These scriptures have a common theme: Christ will bring praise to God from the Gentiles; they will be filled with joy and hope and peace through the one who has risen to rule them. The blessing of verse 13 includes “believing” as the conduit for an overflowing hope brought about by the Holy Spirit’s power.

3.25 Romans 15.14-33

3.25.1 English text

Paul’s Missionary Commission

[14] I am persuaded, my friends – yes, I Paul, with regard to you – that you are yourselves full of kindness, furnished with all Christian learning, and well able to give advice to one another. [15] But in parts of this letter I have expressed myself somewhat boldly – by way of refreshing your memories – [16] because of the charge with which God has entrusted me, that I should be an assistant of Christ Jesus to go to the Gentiles – that I should act as a priest of God’s good news, so that the offering up of the Gentiles may be an acceptable sacrifice, consecrated by the Holy Spirit. [17] It is, then, through my union with Christ Jesus that I have a proud confidence in my work for God. [18] For I will not dare to speak of anything but what Christ has done through me to win the obedience of the Gentiles – [19] by my words and actions, through the power displayed in signs and marvels, and through the power of the Holy Spirit. And so, starting from Jerusalem and going as far as Illyria, I have told in full the good news of the Christ; [20] yet always with the ambition to tell the good news where Christ’s name had not previously been heard, so as to avoid building on another’s foundations. [21] But as scripture says -

They to whom he had never been proclaimed will see;
and they who have never heard will understand!

[22] That is why I have so often been prevented from coming to you. [23] But now there are no further openings for me in these parts, and I have for several years been longing to come to you whenever I may be going to Spain. [24] For my hope is to visit you on my journey, and then to be sent on my way by you, after I have first partly satisfied myself by seeing something of you. [25] Just now, however, I am on my way to Jerusalem, to take help to Christ’s people there. [26] For Macedonia and Greece have been glad to make a collection for the poor among Christ’s people at Jerusalem. [27] Yes, they were glad to do so; and indeed it is a duty which they owe to them. For the Gentile converts who have shared their spiritual blessings are in duty bound to minister to them in the things of this world. [28] When I have settled this matter, and have secured to the poor at Jerusalem the enjoyment of these benefits, I will go, by way of you, to Spain. [29] And I know that, when I come to you, it will be with a full measure of blessing from Christ.

[30] I beg you, then, friends, by Jesus Christ, our Lord, and by the love inspired by the Spirit, to join me in earnest prayer to God on my behalf. [31] Pray that I may be rescued from those in Judea who reject the faith, and that the help which I am taking to Jerusalem may prove acceptable to Christ’s people; [32] so that, God willing, I may be able to come to you with a joyful heart, and enjoy some rest among you. [33] May God, the giver of peace, be with you all. Amen.

3.25.2 Comments

[14] I am persuaded, my friends – yes, I Paul, with regard to you – that you are yourselves full of kindness, furnished with all Christian learning, and well able to give advice to one another. [15] But in parts of this letter I have expressed myself somewhat boldly – by way of refreshing your memories – [16] because of the charge with which God has entrusted me, that I should be an assistant of Christ Jesus to go to the Gentiles – that I should act as a priest of God’s good news, so that the offering up of the Gentiles may be an acceptable sacrifice, consecrated by the Holy Spirit. [17] It is, then, through my union with Christ Jesus that I have a proud confidence in my work for God. [18] For I will not dare to speak of anything but what Christ has done through me to win the obedience of the Gentiles – [19] by my words and actions, through the power displayed in signs and marvels, and through the power of the Holy Spirit. And so, starting from Jerusalem and going as far as Illyria, I have told in full the good news of the Christ; [20] yet always with the ambition to tell the good news where Christ’s name had not previously been heard, so as to avoid building on another’s foundations. [21] But as scripture says -

They to whom he had never been proclaimed will see;
and they who have never heard will understand!

Just as we can sense when a long sermon is drawing to a close (if not sleeping), we now sense that Paul’s disquisition is coming to an end. A theme common to Corinthians and Hebrews as well as Romans is that mature Christians are able to advise one another. (Contrast the new covenant section of Jeremiah 31, which says that no one will need to advise one another about God because all will know Him.) Paul apologises for being a bit over the top – but he is just reminding them of things they already know. It’s his job, after all.

Paul says he is a priest, and that the offering he will make is of the Gentiles. This ties in directly with his call at the beginning of chapter 12 for the Roman believers to present themselves as living sacrifices. Paul’s concept of himself as a priest may have contributed in some way to the revival of the office of priest in early Christianity. In Hebrews the priesthood is passing away, there being one and only one great high priest, of the order of Melchizedek. In 1 Peter there is a priesthood of all believers, a great levelling where all who have Christ’s Spirit are his ministers. Unhappily within a short time (less than 50 years?) things seem to have reverted to a monarchical priesthood where Ignatius (about the beginning of the second century) says:

Take care to do all things in harmony with God, with the bishop presiding in the place of God, and with the presbyters in the place of the council of the apostles, and with the deacons, who are most dear to me, entrusted with the business of Jesus Christ. (Magnesians 2.6.1)

and

Wherever the bishop appears, there let the people be; as wherever Jesus Christ is, there is the Catholic Church. It is not lawful to baptize or give communion without the consent of the bishop. On the other hand, whatever has his approval is pleasing to God. Thus, whatever is done will be safe and valid. (Smyrnaeans 8)

Verses 18 to 20 are an autobiographical sketch where Paul says what Christ has done through him: signs and wonders through the power of the Holy Spirit from Jerusalem to Illyricum. His ambition now is to boldly go where no one has gone before in the name of Christ – all the way to the end of the universe, namely Spain. The quotation is from Isaiah 52.15 (LXX).

[22] That is why I have so often been prevented from coming to you. [23] But now there are no further openings for me in these parts, and I have for several years been longing to come to you whenever I may be going to Spain. [24] For my hope is to visit you on my journey, and then to be sent on my way by you, after I have first partly satisfied myself by seeing something of you. [25] Just now, however, I am on my way to Jerusalem, to take help to Christ’s people there. [26] For Macedonia and Greece have been glad to make a collection for the poor among Christ’s people at Jerusalem. [27] Yes, they were glad to do so; and indeed it is a duty which they owe to them. For the Gentile converts who have shared their spiritual blessings are in duty bound to minister to them in the things of this world. [28] When I have settled this matter, and have secured to the poor at Jerusalem the enjoyment of these benefits, I will go, by way of you, to Spain. [29] And I know that, when I come to you, it will be with a full measure of blessing from Christ.

Paul’s work in the East is finished. There’s nothing left for him to do! So he turns his sights westward. Oh, there’s just one small thing he has to do before heading wets – drop off the offering from the Macedonians to the poor saints in Jerusalem. The Gentiles are to benefit their Jewish benefactors – worldly blessings for spiritual ones. Once that’s done, Spain here we come!

[30] I beg you, then, friends, by Jesus Christ, our Lord, and by the love inspired by the Spirit, to join me in earnest prayer to God on my behalf. [31] Pray that I may be rescued from those in Judea who reject the faith, and that the help which I am taking to Jerusalem may prove acceptable to Christ’s people; [32] so that, God willing, I may be able to come to you with a joyful heart, and enjoy some rest among you. [33] May God, the giver of peace, be with you all. Amen.

It seems that Paul was well aware that trouble was brewing and that danger lurked in Jerusalem. He also seems to have been aware that the offering would not be received with unmitigated joy. Not long after Paul wrote this he commenced his trip to Jerusalem, and not without a sense of foreboding:

And now, behold, bound by the Spirit, I am on my way to Jerusalem, not knowing what will happen to me there, except that the Holy Spirit solemnly testifies to me in every city, saying that bonds and afflictions await me.

Acts 20.22-23

3.26 Romans 16.1-16

3.26.1 English text

Personal Greetings

[Romans 16] [1] I commend to your care our sister, Phoebe, who is an assistant of the church at Cenchreae; [2] and I ask you to give her a Christian welcome – one worthy of Christ’s people – and to aid her in any matter in which she may need your assistance. She has proved herself a staunch friend and protector and to many others.

[3] Give my greeting to Prisca and Aquila, my fellow workers in the cause of Christ Jesus, [4] who risked their own lives to save mine. It is not I alone who thank them, but all the churches among the Gentiles thank them also. [5] Give my greeting, also, to the church that meets at their house, as well as to my dear friend Epaenetus, one of the first in Roman Asia to believe in Christ; [6] to Mary, who worked hard for you; [7] to Andronicus and Junia, fellow Jews and once my fellow prisoners, who are people of note among the apostles, and who became Christians before I did; [8] to my dear Christian friend Ampliatus; [9] to Urban, our fellow worker in the cause of Christ, and to my dear friend Stachys; [10] to that proved Christian Apelles; to the household of Aristobulus; [11] to my countryman Herodion; to the Christians in the household of Narcissus; [12] to Tryphaena and Tryphosa, who have worked hard for the Master; to my dear friend Persis, for she has done much hard work for the Master; [13] to that eminent Christian, Rufus, and to his mother, who has been a mother to me also; [14] to Asyncritus, Phlegon, Hermes, Patrobas, Hermas, and our friends with them; [15] also to Philologus and Julia, Nereus and his sister, and Olympas, and to all Christ’s people who are with them. [16] Greet one another with a sacred kiss. All the churches of the Christ send you greetings.

3.26.2 Comments

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[Romans 16] [1] I commend to your care our sister, Phoebe, who is an assistant of the church at Cenchreae; [2] and I ask you to give her a Christian welcome – one worthy of Christ’s people – and to aid her in any matter in which she may need your assistance. She has proved herself a staunch friend and protector and to many others.

In the absence of a postal service, an ancient letter had to be carried to its destination by someone going that way. Romans had to be carried from Corinth to Rome, and it seems Phoebe is the one Paul asked to do it. It was customary to write a commendation of the letter carrier in Graeco-Roman letters.

Here is what we know about her:

• Her name (Φοιβη), often found in Greek mythology, indicates she is a Gentile.

• She is deacon (διακονον) of the Christian community (εκκλησια, first occurrence in Romans) at Cenchreae, a cosmopolitan port town near Corinth. This could just mean that she served the community, but could also mean that she held the position of deacon. (See: Acts 6.1-4 for appointment of the first deacons; Philippians 1.1 for Paul and Timothy’s address to the saints, bishops, and deacons of the church at Philippi.) “Phoebe is the first recorded ‘deacon’ in the history of Christianity.” (Dunn 1988, 887)

• She became a supporter (προστατισ) of many, including Paul. The plain meaning is that she was Paul’s patron! See Luke 8.3 for another example of women using their possessions to support Christian ministry.

Another remarkable thing is that if Phoebe was the letter carrier, she may have been the one who Paul wanted to read and explain the letter to the Christians in Rome (Chapple 2011). Literacy rates weren’t high (perhaps 10%?), especially among women.

[3] Give my greeting to Prisca and Aquila, my fellow workers in the cause of Christ Jesus, [4] who risked their own lives to save mine. It is not I alone who thank them, but all the churches among the Gentiles thank them also.

The word translated as “greet” (ἀσπάζομαι) means to welcome kindly, salute, kiss, embrace, cling to. One could even say “hug”.

Prisca (Priscilla is the diminutive) and her husband Aquila were a significant pair. Paul first met them in Corinth where they went after being expelled from Rome due to the edict of Claudius. (See Acts 18.1-3; they might have been involved in the disturbance over “Chrestus”.) They worked in the same trade as Paul (tent-making) and were also his coworkers in Christ. That they “risked their necks” for Paul, indicates two things:

• they had done something for Paul that amounted to a capital offence

• they were Roman citizens, as beheading was the mode of execution used by Romans for Romans. (Crucifixion was reserved for slaves and foreigners. It was a capital offence to crucify a Roman citizen.)

Aquila was a Jew, a native of Pontus (northern part of Asia Minor). Prisca is a Latin name (= “ancient”) so she might have been a non-Jew. When Prisca and Aquila are mentioned, Prisca is usually named first. This is not good manners but an indication of relative importance.

[5] Give my greeting, also, to the church that meets at their house, as well as to my dear friend Epaenetus, one of the first in Roman Asia to believe in Christ; [6] to Mary, who worked hard for you; [7] to Andronicus and Junia, fellow Jews and once my fellow prisoners, who are people of note among the apostles, and who became Christians before I did; [8] to my dear Christian friend Ampliatus; [9] to Urban, our fellow worker in the cause of Christ, and to my dear friend Stachys; [10] to that proved Christian Apelles; to the household of Aristobulus; [11] to my countryman Herodion; to the Christians in the household of Narcissus; [12] to Tryphaena and Tryphosa, who have worked hard for the Master; to my dear friend Persis, for she has done much hard work for the Master; [13] to that eminent Christian, Rufus, and to his mother, who has been a mother to me also; [14] to Asyncritus, Phlegon, Hermes, Patrobas, Hermas, and our friends with them; [15] also to Philologus and Julia, Nereus and his sister, and Olympas, and to all Christ’s people who are with them. [16] Greet one another with a sacred kiss. All the churches of the Christ send you greetings.

“also the church that meets in their house”

House churches were the first churches. Prisca and Aquila must have had a house in Rome.

Epaenetus is described as the firstfruit of Asia to Christ. His is a Gentile name.

Mary, a common Jewish name, “worked hard for you” (or grew weary for you). Paul uses the same word in relation to his own hard labour (1 Cor 15.10, Gal 4.11, Phil 2.16, Col 1.29). Could this be one of the Marys mentioned in the Gospels?

“Andronicus and Junia”

Andronicus and Junia are common names among non-Jews, though these two are described as fellow Jews and fellow prisoners. It is not certain whether the second is female (Junia) or male (Junias). The difference between masculine and feminine forms of the name is indicated by an accent:

Ἰουνίαν = female

Ἰουνιᾶν = male

However, accents weren’t added to until well after the first century so we have to look at other evidence to decide which is the more likely. “The female Latin name Junia occurs more than 250 times in Greek and Latin inscriptions found in Rome alone, whereas the male name Junias is unattested anywhere”. Also, when Greek manuscripts began to be accented, scribes wrote the feminine form. (B. M. Metzger 2005, 475)

In view of this, it is reasonable to understand that Andronicus and Junia were husband and wife, which makes the next phrase all the more surprising: “who are outstanding among the apostles, who were in Christ before me”. Dunn says “The full phrase almost certainly means ‘prominent among the apostles’ rather than ‘outstanding in the eyes of the apostles.’” He suggests that Andronicus and Junia were among the group of apostles appointed directly by Christ after his resurrection, and concludes “that one of the foundation apostles of Christianity was a woman and wife.” (Dunn 1988, 894–5)

Ampliatus, Urbanus, and Stachys are names commonly found among slaves; it is not inconceivable that one or two of these people were linked to the imperial household.

Apelles is a common name that was in use among Jews in Rome.

Though Aristoboulos is a common name the “household of Aristoboulos” may be connected to an Aristoboulos who was Herod the Great’s grandson and Agrippa’s brother. (Dunn 1988, 896)

Herodion is also described as a fellow-Jew. He may have been a freedman, formerly a slave in Herod’s hosehold.

Narcissus was a common name among slaves and freedmen. There was a freedman of that name who had been a close aide of Claudius (Dunn 1988, 896)

The similarity of the names Tryphaena (= Dainty) and Tryphosa (= Delicate) may mean these two were sisters.

Persis was a popular name for female slaves.

Rufus is a Latin name (= red). If he is the same person as mentioned in Mark’s Gospel 15.21 then he would be Simon of Cyrene’s son, and his mother would be Simon of Cyrene’s wife. She must have been in the same place as Paul at some stage since he describes her as like a mother to him.

“Asyncritus, Phlegon, Hermes, Patrobas, Hermas”

These names are known among slaves and freedmen (records exist of an imperial freedman named Asynchritus, a Phlegon freed by Claudius, a Patrobius freed by Nero). Hermes and Hermas were common slave names. (Dunn 1988, 898) These five might have been members of a house church.

“Philologus and Julia, Nereus and his sister, and Olympas”

Philologus was a name found among slaves. Julia was especially common among imperial slaves. Philologus and Julia may be husband and wife. Nereus is found among imperial slaves too. There was an imperial freedman named Olympas, though it’s anyone’s guess whether this Olympas is that Olympas.

“Greet each other with a holy kiss”

This was a common form of greeting among the early Christians.

“All the churches of Christ greet you”

Presumably these are the churches with links to Paul and his associates.

3.26.3 Summary

The people Paul greets in Rome are a portrait of the church (or churches) there:

• there are highly placed coworkers (Prisca and Aquila; Andronicus and Junia) – people with similar status to Paul

• there are slaves and freedmen (and freedwomen?), some of whom may be associated with influential households, even the imperial household

• there are numerous women, many of whom appear to figure prominently with respect to positions of service.

3.27 Romans 16.17-27

3.27.1 English text

[17] I beg you, friends, to be on your guard against people who, by disregarding the teaching which you received, cause divisions and create difficulties; dissociate yourselves from them. [18] For such persons are not serving Christ, our Master, but are slaves to their own appetites; and, by their smooth words and flattery, they deceive simple-minded people. [19] Everyone has heard of your ready obedience. It is true that I am very happy about you, but I want you to be well versed in all that is good, and innocent of all that is bad. [20] And God, the giver of peace, will before long crush Satan under your feet. May the blessing of Jesus, our Lord, be with you.

[21] Timothy, my fellow worker, sends you his greetings, and Lucius, Jason, and Sosipater, my countrymen, send theirs. [22] I Tertius, who am writing this letter, send you my Christian greeting. [23] My host Gaius, who extends his hospitality to the whole church, sends you his greeting; and Erastus, the city treasurer, and Quartus, our dear friend, add theirs.

[24] The grace of our Lord Jesus Christ be with you all. Amen.

Doxology

[25] Now to him who is able to strengthen you, as promised in the good news entrusted to me and in the proclamation of Jesus Christ, in accordance with the revelation of that hidden purpose, which in past ages was kept secret but now has been revealed [26] and, in obedience to the command of the immortal God, made known through the writings of the prophets to all nations, to secure submission to the faith – [27] to him, I say, the wise and only God, be ascribed, through Jesus Christ, all glory for ever and ever. Amen.

3.27.2 Comments

[17] I beg you, friends, to be on your guard against people who, by disregarding the teaching which you received, cause divisions and create difficulties; dissociate yourselves from them. [18] For such persons are not serving Christ, our Master, but are slaves to their own appetites; and, by their smooth words and flattery, they deceive simple-minded people. [19] Everyone has heard of your ready obedience. It is true that I am very happy about you, but I want you to be well versed in all that is good, and innocent of all that is bad. [20] And God, the giver of peace, will before long crush Satan under your feet. May the blessing of Jesus, our Lord, be with you.

Paul suddenly starts to talk about people who cause divisions. Compare Phil 3.2f and other places where Paul speaks against the Judaizers who were a constant source of trouble for him.

[21] Timothy, my fellow worker, sends you his greetings, and Lucius, Jason, and Sosipater, my countrymen, send theirs. [22] I Tertius, who am writing this letter, send you my Christian greeting. [23] My host Gaius, who extends his hospitality to the whole church, sends you his greeting; and Erastus, the city treasurer, and Quartus, our dear friend, add theirs.

Timothy, Lucius, Jason and Sosipater send their greetings. These are Paul’s companions. Timothy is named as coauthor (along with Silas) in some of Paul’s letters, though not Romans. Lucius amy well be Luke, author of the Gospel, whose “we” passages in Acts show that he travelled with Paul on some of his journeys. Jason may be the same person mentioned in Acts 17 who was Paul’s host in Thessalonika. Sosipater could be the Sopater mentioned in Acts 20.4.

Tertius, the poor bloke who wrote the letter, also sends a greeting. There is a lot to Romans, It doesn’t strike one as something that could have been written in one sitting. It seems much more likely to be the result of many, many hours of focussed effort, writing and rewriting until the final form was achieved. How many papyrus drafts filled the room where Tertius sat as he wrote his greeting? Tertius is Latin (= third), another slave name.

Gaius, Paul’s host in Corinth, is probably the same person mentioned in 1 Cor 1.14. He might also be the person mentioned in Acts 18.7.

Erastus is the city treasurer. Paul seems to have gathered in some important people. An Erastus is also mentioned at Acts 19.22 and 2 Tim 4.20. Quartus is another Latin slave name (= fourth).

[24] The grace of our Lord Jesus Christ be with you all. Amen.

Doxology

[25] Now to him who is able to strengthen you, as promised in the good news entrusted to me and in the proclamation of Jesus Christ, in accordance with the revelation of that hidden purpose, which in past ages was kept secret but now has been revealed [26] and, in obedience to the command of the immortal God, made known through the writings of the prophets to all nations, to secure submission to the faith – [27] to him, I say, the wise and only God, be ascribed, through Jesus Christ, all glory for ever and ever. Amen.

So Paul concludes his magnificant work.

3.28 Summary

4 Cross-references

The following list of cross-references is taken from the Greek New Testament (B. Aland et al. 2014). The cross-references consist of quotations, allusions, and parallels discerned by those who produced the Greek New Testament. Some references to Romans are from subsequently written books. Links usually go to CrossWire’s Bible Tool although some (e.g. references to apocryphal books) go elsewhere.

1.1

• Ac 9.15
• Ac 13.2
• Ga 1.15

1.2

• Ro 16.25-26
• Titus 1.2

1.3

• Mt 22.42
• 2 Tim 2.8
• Ro 9.5

1.4

• Ac 13.33

1.5

• Ac 26.16-18
• Ro 15.18
• Ga 2.7
• Ga 2.9

1.7

• 1 Cor 1.2
• 2 Cor 1.1
• Nu 6.25-26
• 1 Cor 1.3
• 2 Cor 1.2

1.8

• 1 Th 1.8

1.9

• Php 1.8
• 1 Th 2.5
• 1 Th 2.10
• Eph 1.16

1.10

• Ac 19.21
• Ro 15.23
• Ro 15.32

1.13

• Jn 15.16

1.16

• Ps 119.46
• Mk 8.38
• 1 Cor 1.18
• 1 Cor 1.24
• Ac 13.46

1.17

• Ro 3.21-22
• Hab 2.4
• Ga 3.11
• He 10.38

1.18

• Eph 5.6
• Col 3.6
• 2 Th 2.12

1.19

• Ac 14.15-17
• Ac 17.24-28

1.20

• Job 12.7-9
• Ps 19.1

1.21

• Eph 4.17-18

1.22

• Jer 10.14
• 1 Cor 1.20

1.23

• Dt 4.15-19
• Ps 106.20

1.24

• Ac 14.16

1.25

• Jer 13.25
• Jer 16.19
• Ro 9.5

1.27

• Lv 18.22
• Lv 20.13
• 1 Cor 6.9

2.1

• Mt 7.2
• Lk 6.37
• Jn 8.7

2.4

• 2 Pe 3.15

2.6

• Ps 62.12
• Pr 24.12
• Sir 16.14
• Mt 16.27
• Jn 5.29
• 2 Cor 5.10

2.9

• 2 Th 1.8
• Ro 1.16

2.11

• Dt 10.17
• 2 Chr 19.7
• Ac 10.34
• Ga 2.6
• Eph 6.9
• Col 3.25
• 1 Pe 1.17

2.13

• Mt 7.21
• Jas 1.22
• Jas 1.25
• 1 Jn 3.7

2.14

• Ac 10.35

2.16

• 2 Tim 2.8

2.18

• Php 1.10

2.19

• Mt 15.14
• Lk 18.9

2.20

• 2 Tim 3.15

2.21

• Ps 50.16-21
• Mt 23.3-4

2.24

• Is 52.5
• Eze 36.20

2.25

• Jer 4.4
• Jer 9.25

2.26

• Ga 5.6

2.28

• Jn 7.24
• Jn 8.15
• Jn 8.39

2.29

• Dt 30.6
• Col 2.11
• 1 Cor 4.5
• 2 Cor 10.18

3.2

• Dt 4.7-8
• Ps 103.7
• Ps 147.19-20
• Ro 9.4

3.3

• Ro 9.6
• Ro 11.29
• 2 Tim 2.13

3.4

• Ps 116.11
• Ps 51.4

3.8

• Ro 6.1

3.9

• Ro 1.18-24
• Ro 3.23

3.10-12

• Ps 14.1-3
• Ps 53.1-3
• Ec 7.20

3.13

• Ps 5.9
• Ps 140.3

3.14

• Ps 10.7

3.15-17

• Is 59.7-8
• Pr 1.16

3.18

• Ps 36.1

3.20

• Ps 143.2
• Ga 2.16
• Ro 7.7

3.21

• Ac 10.43

3.22

• Ro 1.17
• Ga 2.16

3.23

• Ro 3.9

3.24

• Eph 2.8
• Ro 5.1

3.25

• Eph 1.7

3.27

• 1 Cor 1.31

3.28

• Ga 2.16

3.29

• Ro 10.12

3.30

• Dt 6.4
• Ga 3.20
• Ro 4.11-12

3.31

• Mt 5.17
• Ro 4.3
• Ro 8.4

4.3

• Gn 15.6
• Ga 3.6
• Jas 2.23

4.4

• Ro 11.6

4.7-8

• Ps 32.1-2

4.9

• Gn 15.6

4.11

• Gn 17.10-11

4.13

• Gn 18.18
• Gn 22.17-18
• Ga 3.29

4.14

• Ga 3.18

4.15

• Ro 3.20
• Ro 5.13
• Ro 7.8

4.16

• Ga 3.7

4.17

• Gn 17.5
• Is 48.13

4.18

• Gn 15.5

4.19

• Gn 17.17

4.22

• Gn 15.6

4.23-24

• Ro 15.4

4.24

• 1 Pe 1.21

4.25

• Is 53.4-5
• 1 Cor 15.17

5.1

• Ro 3.24
• Ro 3.28

5.2

• Eph 2.18
• Eph 3.12

5.3

• Jas 1.2-3
• 1 Pe 1.5-7

5.5

• Ps 22.5
• Ps 25.20
• He 6.18-19

5.8

• Jn 3.16
• 1 Jn 4.10

5.9

• Ro 1.18
• Ro 2.5
• Ro 2.8

5.10

• Ro 8.7-8

5.13

• Ro 4.15

5.14

• 1 Cor 15.21-22
• 1 Cor 15.45

5.18

• 1 Cor 15.22

5.19

• Is 53.11

5.20

• Ro 4.15
• Ro 7.8
• Ga 3.19

5.21

• Ro 6.23

6.1

• Ro 3.5-8

6.2

• 1 Pe 4.1

6.3

• Ga 3.27

6.4

• Col 2.12

6.5

• Php 3.10-11

6.6

• Ga 5.24

6.7

• 1 Pe 4.1

6.10

• He 9.26-28
• 1 Pe 3.18
• Ga 2.19

6.11

• 2 Cor 5.15
• 1 Pe 2.24

6.12

• Gn 4.7

6.13

• Ro 12.1
• Eph 2.5
• Eph 5.14

6.14

• 1 Jn 3.6

6.15

• Ro 5.17
• Ro 5.21

6.16

• Jn 8.34
• 2 Pe 2.19

6.18

• Jn 8.32

6.21

• Eze 16.61
• Eze 16.63
• Ro 7.5
• Ro 8.6
• Ro 8.13

6.22

• 1 Pe 1.9

6.23

• Ro 5.12
• Ro 5.15

7.4

• Col 2.14

7.5

• Ro 5.21
• Ro 8.6
• Ro 8.13

7.6

• Ro 8.2
• Ro 6.4

7.7

• Ex 20.17
• Dt 5.21
• 4 Macc 2.5
• Ro 13.9

7.8

• Ro 5.13

7.10

• Lv 18.5

7.11

• Gn 3.13
• He 3.13

7.12

• 1 Tim 1.8

7.13

• Ro 5.20

7.14

• Ps 51.5
• Jn 3.6

7.18

• Gn 6.5
• Gn 8.21

7.23

• Ga 5.17
• Jas 4.1
• 1 Pe 2.11

7.25

• 1 Cor 15.57

8.2

• Ro 7.23
• Ro 7.24
• Ro 3.27

8.3

• Ac 13.38
• Ac 15.10
• Jn 1.14
• Php 2.7
• He 2.17
• He 4.15

8.4

• Ga 5.16
• Ga 5.25

8.6

• Ro 6.21
• Ro 7.5
• Ro 8.13

8.7

• Jas 4.4
• Mt 12.34
• Jn 8.43
• Jn 12.39

8.9

• 1 Cor 3.16
• 1 Cor 12.3

8.10

• Ga 2.20
• 1 Pe 4.6

8.12

• Ro 6.7
• Ro 6.18

8.13

• Ga 6.8

8.15

• 2 Tim 1.7
• Ga 4.5-6
• Mk 14.36

8.16

• 2 Cor 1.22

8.17

• Ga 4.7
• Re 21.7

8.18

• 2 Cor 4.17

8.19

• Col 3.4

8.20

• Gn 3.17-19
• Gn 5.29
• Ec 1.2

8.21

• 2 Pe 3.13
• 1 Jn 3.2

8.23

• 2 Cor 5.2-4
• Ga 5.5

8.24

• 2 Cor 5.7

8.27

• Ps 139.1
• 1 Cor 4.5

8.28

• Eph 1.11
• Eph 3.11

8.29

• Col 1.18
• He 1.6

8.31

• Ps 118.6

8.32

• Jn 3.16

8.33

• Is 50.8

8.34

• Ps 110.1
• 1 Jn 2.1

8.36

• Ps 44.22
• 2 Cor 4.11

8.37

• Jn 16.33

9.3

• Ex 32.32

9.4

• Ex 4.22
• Dt 7.6
• Dt 14.1-2

9.5

• Mt 1.1-16
• Lk 3.23-38
• Jn 1.1
• Ps 41.3
• Ro 1.25

9.6

• Nu 23.19
• Ro 2.28

9.7

• Gn 21.12

9.8

• Ga 4.23

9.9

• Gn 18.10
• Gn 18.14

9.10

• Gn 25.21

9.12

• Gn 25.23

9.13

• Mal 1.2-3

9.14

• Dt 32.4

9.15

• Ex 33.19

9.16

• Eph 2.8

9.17

• Ex 9.16

9.18

• Ex 4.21
• Ex 7.3
• Ex 9.12
• Ex 14.4
• Ex 14.17

9.20

• Is 29.16
• Is 45.9
• Wsd 12.12

9.21

• Jer 18.6
• Wsd 15.7

9.22

• Jer 50.25

9.23

• Eph 1.3-12

9.25

• Ho 2.23

9.26

• Ho 1.10

9.27-28

• Is 10.22-23
• Ho 1.10

9.29

• Is 1.9

9.30

• Ro 10.20

9.31

• Wsd 2.11
• Ro 10.2-3

9.32

• Is 8.14

9.33

• Is 28.16
• Ro 10.11
• 1 Pe 2.6
• 1 Pe 2.8

10.2

• Ac 22.3

10.3

• Ro 9.31-32

10.4

• Mt 5.17
• Jn 3.18
• He 8.13

10.5

• Lv 18.5
• Gn 3.12

10.6-8

• Dt 9.4
• Dt 30.12-14

10.11

• Is 28.16
• Ro 9.33

10.12

• Ac 10.34
• Ac 15.9

10.13

• Joel 2.32

10.15

• Is 52.7
• Na 1.15
• Eph 6.15

10.16

• Is 53.1
• Jn 12.38

10.17

• Jn 17.20

10.18

• Ps 19.4

10.19

• Dt 32.21

10.20

• Is 65.1

10.21

• Is 65.2 (LXX)

11.1

• Php 3.5

11.1-2

• 1 Sam 12.22
• Ps 94.14

11.3

• 1 Kgs 19.10

11.4

• 1 Kgs 19.18

11.5

• Ro 9.27

11.6

• Ga 3.18

11.7

• Ro 9.31

11.8

• Dt 29.4
• Is 29.10

11.9-10

• Ps 69.22-23
• Ps 35.8

11.11

• Ac 13.46
• Dt 32.21
• Ro 10.19

11.16

• Nu 15.17-21
• Ne 10.37
• Eze 44.30

11.17

• Eph 2.11-19

11.18

• Jn 4.22

11.20

• Ro 12.16

11.22

• Jn 15.2
• Jn 15.4
• He 3.14

11.25

• Ro 12.16
• Lk 21.24
• Jn 10.16

11.26

• Mt 22.29

11.26-27

• Is 59.20-21
• Ps 14.7

11.27

• Is 27.9
• Jer 31.33-34

11.32

• Ga 3.22
• 1 Tim 2.4

11.33

• Is 45.15
• Is 55.8

11.34

• Is 40.13 LXX
• Job 15.8
• Jer 23.18

11.35

• Job 41.3

11.36

• 1 Cor 8.6

12.1-2

• Ro 6.11
• Ro 6.13
• 1 Pe 2.5

12.2

• Eph 4.23
• Eph 5.10
• Eph 5.17

12.3

• 1 Cor 12.11
• Eph 4.7

12.4

• 1 Cor 12.12

12.5

• 1 Cor 12.27
• Eph 4.25

12.6-8

• 1 Cor 12.4-11
• 1 Pe 4.10-11

12.8

• 2 Cor 9.7

12.9

• 1 Tim 1.5
• 1 Pe 1.22
• Am 5.15

12.10

• 2 Pe 1.7
• Php 2.3

12.11

• Ac 18.25
• Re 3.15

12.12

• 1 Th 5.17

12.13

• He 13.2

12.14

• Mt 5.44
• Lk 6.28
• Ac 7.60
• 1 Cor 4.12

12.15

• Ps 35.13

12.16

• Ro 15.5
• Pr 3.7
• Is 5.21
• Ro 11.20

12.17

• 1 Th 5.15
• Pr 3.4 LXX

12.18

• Mk 9.50
• He 12.14

12.19

• Lv 19.18
• Mt 5.39
• Ro 13.4
• 2 Th 1.6-7
• Dt 32.35
• He 10.30

12.20

• Pr 25.21-22
• Mt 5.44

13.1

• Titus 3.1
• Pr 8.15
• Jn 19.11

13.3

• 1 Pe 2.13-14
• 1 Pe 3.13

13.4

• Ro 12.19

13.7

• Mt 22.21
• Mk 12.17
• Lk 20.25

13.8

• Ga 5.14
• 1 Tim 1.5

13.9

• Ex 20.13-15
• Ex 20.17
• Dt 5.17-19
• Dt 5.21
• Mt 19.18
• Lv 19.18
• Mt 5.43
• Mt 19.19
• Mt 22.39
• Mk 12.31
• Lk 10.27
• Ga 5.14
• Jas 2.8

13.10

• Mt 22.40

13.11

• Eph 5.14
• 1 Th 5.6-7

13.12

• 1 Jn 2.8
• Eph 5.11

13.13

• Lk 21.34
• Eph 5.18

13.14

• Ga 3.27

14.1

• Ro 15.7

14.2

• Gn 1.29
• Gn 9.3

14.3

• Col 2.16

14.4

• Mt 7.1
• Jas 4.11-12

14.5

• Ga 4.10

14.8

• Lk 20.38
• Ga 2.20
• 1 Th 5.10

14.10

• Mt 25.31-32
• Ac 17.31
• 2 Cor 5.10

14.11

• Is 49.18
• Is 45.23
• Php 2.10-11

14.12

• Ga 6.5

14.14

• Ac 10.15
• Titus 1.15

14.15

• 1 Cor 8.11-13

14.16

• Titus 2.5

14.19

• Ro 12.18
• Ro 15.2

14.21

• 1 Cor 8.13

14.23

• Titus 1.15

15.2

• Ro 14.19
• 1 Cor 9.19
• 1 Cor 10.24
• 1 Cor 10.33

15.3

• Ps 69.9

15.4

• Ro 4.23-24
• 1 Cor 10.11

15.7

• Ro 14.1

15.8

• Mt 15.24
• Mic 7.20
• Ac 3.25

15.9

• Ro 11.30
• Ps 18.49
• 2 Sam 22.50

15.10

• Dt 32.43

15.11

• Ps 117.1

15.12

• Is 11.10
• Re 5.5

15.15

• Ro 1.5
• Ro 12.3

15.16

• Ro 11.13
• Php 2.17

15.18

• 2 Cor 3.5

15.20

• 2 Cor 10.15-16

15.21

• Is 52.15

15.22

• Ro 1.10-13

15.24

• 1 Cor 16.6

15.25

• Ac 19.21
• Ac 20.22

15.26

• 1 Cor 16.1
• 2 Cor 8.1
• 2 Cor 9.2
• 2 Cor 9.12

15.27

• Ro 9.4
• 1 Cor 9.11

15.30

• 2 Cor 1.11
• Php 1.27
• Col 4.3
• 2 Th 3.1

16.3

• Ac 18.2
• Ac 18.18
• Ac 18.26

16.5

• 1 Cor 16.19
• 1 Cor 16.15

16.13

• Mk 15.21

16.16

• 1 Cor 16.20
• 1 Pe 5.14

16.17

• Mt 7.15
• Titus 3.10

16.18

• Php 3.19
• Col 2.4
• 2 Pe 2.3

16.19

• Ro 1.8
• Mt 10.16
• 1 Cor 14.20

16.20

• Gn 3.15
• Ro 15.33

16.21

• Ac 16.1
• Ac 19.22
• Ac 20.4
• Php 2.19

16.23

• Ac 19.29
• 1 Cor 1.14
• 2 Tim 4.20

16.25

• Eph 1.9
• Eph 3.5
• Eph 3.9
• Col 1.26

16.26

• Ro 1.5

16.27

• 2 Tim 1.17
• Jude 25

4.1 Distribution of cross-references

This table shows the number of times other books of the Bible are listed in the Greek New Testament cross-references for Romans. (Some apocryphal books are included.) These numbers are indicative, not absolute. Nevertheless, they give one a sense of which books have the most points of contact with Romans.

Book	Number of references
Ro	83
1 Cor	35
Ps	34
Ac	29
Ga	29
Is	27
Eph	25
Jn	23
Mt	23
Gn	22
1 Pe	17
2 Cor	17
Dt	16
He	12
Col	11
Ex	11
Php	11
Jer	9
Lk	9
Jas	8
1 Th	7
Mk	6
Pr	6
1 Jn	6
2 Tim	6
Titus	5
2 Pe	5
Eze	4
Lv	4
2 Th	4
Job	3
Nu	3
Re	3
Wsd	3
1 Tim	3
Ec	2
Ho	2
1 Kgs	2
Am	1
Hab	1
Joel	1
Jude	1
Mal	1
Mic	1
Na	1
Ne	1
Sir	1
1 Sam	1
2 Chr	1
2 Sam	1
4 Macc	1

5 Textual variants

1.1

Χριστου Ιησου | Ιησου Χριστου Christ Jesus | Jesus Christ

1.7

εν Ρωμη | - in Rome | -

1.13

ου θελω | ουκ οιομαι I would not | I don’t suppose

1.15

1.16

1.29

1.31

2.16

2.17

3.7

3.12

3.22

3.25

3.26

3.28

4.1

4.11

4.15

4.19a

4.19b

4.22

5.1

5.2

5.6

6.4

6.8

6.11

6.12

6.16

7.14

7.18

7.20

7.22

7.25

8.1

8.2

8.11

8.21

8.23

8.24a

8.24b

8.26

8.28

8.34

8.35

8.38

9.4

9.5

9.23

9.28

9.32

9.33

10.1

10.15

10.17

11.1

11.6

11.17

11.21

11.25

11.31

11.32

12.2

12.11

12.14

12.17

13.1

13.9

13.11

13.12

14.12

14.19

14.21

14.22

14.23

15.7

15.15

15.19

15.24

15.29

15.31

15.32

15.33

16.3

16.7

16.15

16.20

16.24

16.25-27

16.27a

16.27b

6 Glossary

Many of these definitions are from Barclay Newman’s Greek-English Dictionary of the New Testament (Newman 2010) although links point to the Perseus Greek Word Study Tool.

abandoned

παραδίδωμι: hand over, give over, deliver up

anger

ὀργή: anger, retribution, punishment, revenge.

apostle

αποστολοσ: apostle, messenger (from God), ambassador, envoy, one sent out, someone dedicated to God’s Gospel. Some would say a person who has seen Jesus Christ and been sent by him to announce the good news that he was dead but is now alive. (Making who the first?)

count

λογιζομαι: count, reckon, calculate, take into account, credit, consider, reason

faith

πιστισ: trust, faith, belief, persuasion of a thing, confidence, assurance.

flesh

σαρξ: physical body, human body, lower nature, human realm of existence, earthly descent, earthly life.

good news

ευαγγελιον: the Gospel of Jesus Christ.

grace

χαρισ: grace, favour, kindness, mercy, goodwill, gift, blessing.

judge

κρινω: judge, pass judgement on, condemn, decide, determine, consider.

law

νομοσ: law, Jewish Law, principle, marriage law (Ro 7.2).

master

κυριοσ: lord, master, head of a family, master of a house, guardian, trustee, a form of respectful address, of gods (esp. in the East), of deified rulers, God (LXX). Someone with authority and power, someone to be obeyed.

power

δυναμισ: power, strength, might, act of power, miracle, ability, capacity, means.

right-

δικαιοσ: upright, good, in a right relationship with God, acceptable to God, fair, honest, innocent.

δικαιοσύνη: right.

δικαιόω: be in right relationship, be right, be acknowledged as right.

δικαίωμα: regulation, requirement, righteous deed, judgement.

salvation

σωτηρια:

References

Aland, Barbara, Kurt Aland, Johannes Karavidopoulos, Carlo M. Martini, and Bruce Metzger, eds. 2014. The Greek New Testament. 5th ed. Stuttgart: United Bible Societies.

Ashley, Evelyn. 2002. “By Faith.” In What Does the Text Actually Say? A Festschrift in Honour of Dr Richard K. Moore. Interweb: Halotype. http://www.halotype.com/RKM/.

Bonhoeffer, Dietrich. 1965. Ethics. Translated by Neville North Smith. Collier Books.

Bruce, F. F. 1985. The Letter of Paul to the Romans: An Introduction and Commentary. 2nd ed. Tyndale New Testament Commentaries. Leicester, England: IVP.

Byrne, Brendan. 2007. Romans. Sacra Pagina 6. Collegeville, Minn: Michael Glazier.

Chapple, Allan. 2011. “Getting Romans to the Right Romans: Phoebe and the Delivery of Paul's Letters.” Tyndale Bulletin 62 (2): 195–214. http://www.tyndalehouse.com/Bulletin/62=2011/03_Chapple.pdf.

Dunn, James D. G. 1988. Romans 9-16. Word Biblical Commentary. Dallas: Word Books.

Longenecker, Richard N. 2011. Introducing Romans: Critical Issues in Paul's Most Famous Letter. Grand Rapids, Mich: Eerdmans.

Metzger, Bruce M. 2005. A Textual Commentary on the Greek New Testament. 2nd ed. Hendrickson Publishers.

Moore, Richard K. 2014. Under the Southern Cross: The New Testament in Australian English. WestBowPress.

———. 2015. Paul's Concept of Justification: God's Gift of a Right Relationship. Wipf & Stock.

Newman, Barclay. 2010. Greek-English Dictionary of the New Testament. Revised edition. Stuttgart: Not Avail.